J. Chastre and J. Fagon, Ventilator-associated Pneumonia, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.165, issue.7, pp.867-903, 2002.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.165.7.2105078

J. Vincent, D. Bihari, and P. Suter, The prevalence of nosocomial infection in intensive care units in Europe. Results of the European Prevalence of Infection in Intensive Care (EPIC) Study. EPIC International Advisory Committee, JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, vol.274, issue.8, pp.639-644, 1995.
DOI : 10.1001/jama.274.8.639

J. Vincent, Y. Sakr, and C. Sprung, Sepsis in European intensive care units: Results of the SOAP study*, Critical Care Medicine, vol.34, issue.2, pp.344-353, 2006.
DOI : 10.1097/01.CCM.0000194725.48928.3A

J. Zahar, J. Timsit, and M. Garrouste-orgeas, Outcomes in severe sepsis and patients with septic shock: Pathogen species and infection sites are not associated with mortality*, Critical Care Medicine, vol.39, issue.8, pp.1886-1895, 2011.
DOI : 10.1097/CCM.0b013e31821b827c

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00841190

H. Markogiannakis, N. Pachylaki, and E. Samara, Infections in a surgical intensive care unit of a university hospital in Greece, International Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol.13, issue.2, pp.145-153, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.ijid.2008.05.1227

S. Hugonnet, I. Uçkay, and D. Pittet, Staffing level: a determinant of late-onset ventilator-associated pneumonia, Critical Care, vol.11, issue.4, p.80, 2007.
DOI : 10.1186/cc5974

H. Erbay, A. Yalcin, and S. Serin, Nosocomial infections in intensive care unit in a Turkish university hospital: a 2-year survey, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.29, issue.9, pp.1482-1488, 2003.
DOI : 10.1007/s00134-003-1788-x

D. Cook, S. Walter, and R. Cook, Incidence of and Risk Factors for Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia in Critically Ill Patients, Annals of Internal Medicine, vol.129, issue.6, pp.433-440, 1998.
DOI : 10.7326/0003-4819-129-6-199809150-00002

M. Kollef, Ventilator-associated pneumonia. A multivariate analysis, JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, vol.270, issue.16, pp.1965-1970, 1993.
DOI : 10.1001/jama.270.16.1965

J. Rello, D. Ollendorf, and G. Oster, Epidemiology and Outcomes of Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia in a Large US Database, Chest, vol.122, issue.6, pp.2115-2121, 2002.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.122.6.2115

E. Ibrahim, L. Tracy, C. Hill, V. Fraser, and M. Kollef, The Occurrence of Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia in a Community Hospital, Chest, vol.120, issue.2, pp.555-561, 2001.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.120.2.555

M. Bekaert, J. Timsit, and S. Vansteelandt, Attributable Mortality of Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.184, issue.10, pp.1133-1139, 2011.
DOI : 10.1164/rccm.201105-0867OC

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00841199

J. Chastre, J. Trouillet, and A. Vuagnat, Nosocomial Pneumonia in Patients with Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.157, issue.4, pp.1165-1172, 1998.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.157.4.9708057

C. Delclaux, E. Roupie, and F. Blot, Lower Respiratory Tract Colonization and Infection during Severe Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.156, issue.4, pp.1092-1098, 1997.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.156.4.9701065

P. Markowicz, M. Wolff, and K. Djedaïni, Multicenter Prospective Study of Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia During Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.161, issue.6, pp.1942-1948, 2000.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.161.6.9909122

L. Papazian, F. Bregeon, and X. Thirion, Effect of ventilator-associated pneumonia on mortality and morbidity., American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.154, issue.1, pp.91-97, 1996.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.154.1.8680705

E. Apostolopoulou, P. Bakakos, T. Katostaras, and L. Gregorakos, Incidence and risk factors for ventilator-associated pneumonia in 4 multidisciplinary intensive care units in Athens, Greece. Respir Care, vol.48, issue.7, pp.681-688, 2003.

D. Craven, Epidemiology of Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia, Chest, vol.117, issue.4, pp.186-187, 2000.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.117.4_suppl_2.186S

P. Moine, J. Timsit, D. Lassence, and A. , Mortality associated with late-onset pneumonia in the intensive care unit: results of a multi-center cohort study, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.28, issue.2, pp.154-163, 2002.
DOI : 10.1007/s00134-001-1172-7

F. Bregeon, V. Ciais, and V. Carret, Is Ventilator-associated Pneumonia an Independent Risk Factor for Death?, Anesthesiology, vol.94, issue.4, pp.554-560, 2001.
DOI : 10.1097/00000542-200104000-00005

D. Sofianou, T. Constandinidis, M. Yannacou, H. Anastasiou, and E. Sofianos, Analysis of Risk Factors for Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia in a Multidisciplinary Intensive Care Unit, European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases, vol.19, issue.6, pp.460-463, 2000.
DOI : 10.1007/s100960000236

M. Nguile-makao, J. Zahar, and A. Français, Attributable mortality of ventilator-associated pneumonia: respective impact of main characteristics at ICU admission and VAP onset using conditional logistic regression and multi-state models, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.46, issue.2, pp.781-789, 2010.
DOI : 10.1007/s00134-010-1824-6

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/inserm-00465413

J. Rello, M. Rué, and P. Jubert, Survival in patients with nosocomial pneumonia, Critical Care Medicine, vol.25, issue.11, pp.1862-1867, 1997.
DOI : 10.1097/00003246-199711000-00026

J. Fagon, J. Chastre, Y. Domart, J. Trouillet, and C. Gibert, Mortality Due to Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia or Colonization with Pseudomonas or Acinetobacter Species: Assessment by Quantitative Culture of Samples Obtained by a Protected Specimen Brush, Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol.23, issue.3, pp.538-542, 1996.
DOI : 10.1093/clinids/23.3.538

M. Bonten, M. Kollef, and J. Hall, Risk Factors for Ventilator???Associated Pneumonia: From Epidemiology to Patient Management, Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol.38, issue.8, pp.1141-1149, 2004.
DOI : 10.1086/383039

URL : http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/short/38/8/1141

J. Zahar, M. Nguile-makao, and A. Français, Predicting the risk of documented ventilator-associated pneumonia for benchmarking: Construction and validation of a score*, Critical Care Medicine, vol.37, issue.9, pp.2545-2551, 2009.
DOI : 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181a38109

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/inserm-00449318

M. Cavalcanti, M. Ferrer, and R. Ferrer, Risk and prognostic factors of ventilator-associated pneumonia in trauma patients, Critical Care Medicine, vol.34, issue.4, pp.1067-1072, 2006.
DOI : 10.1097/01.CCM.0000206471.44161.A0

A. Tejada-artigas, S. Bello-dronda, C. Vallés, and E. , Risk factors for nosocomial pneumonia in critically ill trauma patients, Critical Care Medicine, vol.29, issue.2, pp.304-309, 2001.
DOI : 10.1097/00003246-200102000-00015

E. Tejerina, F. Frutos-vivar, and M. Restrepo, Incidence, risk factors, and outcome of ventilator-associated pneumonia, Journal of Critical Care, vol.21, issue.1, pp.56-65, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jcrc.2005.08.005

N. Joshi, A. Localio, and B. Hamory, A predictive risk index for nosocomial pneumonia in the intensive care unit, The American Journal of Medicine, vol.93, issue.2, pp.135-142, 1992.
DOI : 10.1016/0002-9343(92)90042-A

J. Hortal, P. Muñoz, and G. Cuerpo, Ventilator-associated pneumonia in patients undergoing major heart surgery: an incidence study in Europe, Critical Care, vol.13, issue.3, p.80, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jtcvs.2007.08.052

J. Rello and A. Torres, Microbial causes of ventilator-associated pneumonia, Semin Respir Infect, vol.11, issue.1, pp.24-31, 1996.

J. Rello, V. Ausina, and M. Ricart, Risk factors for infection byPseudomonas aeruginosa in patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.2, issue.3, pp.193-198, 1994.
DOI : 10.1007/BF01704699

O. Diaz, E. Diaz, and J. Rello, Risk factors for pneumonia in the intubated patient, Infectious Disease Clinics of North America, vol.17, issue.4, pp.697-705, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S0891-5520(03)00072-2

D. Bowton, Nosocomial Pneumonia in the ICU??? Year 2000 and Beyond, Chest, vol.115, issue.3, 1999.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.115.suppl_1.28S

R. Sawyer and C. Leon, Common complications in the surgical intensive care unit, Critical Care Medicine, vol.38, issue.9, pp.483-493, 2010.
DOI : 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181ec68c9

M. Bonten, Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia: Preventing the Inevitable, Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol.52, issue.1, pp.115-121, 2011.
DOI : 10.1093/cid/ciq075

URL : http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/short/52/1/115

A. Coppadoro, E. Bittner, and L. Berra, Novel preventive strategies for ventilator-associated pneumonia, Critical Care, vol.16, issue.2, p.210, 2012.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.129.4.960

A. Zanella, V. Scaravilli, and S. Isgrò, Fluid leakage across tracheal tube cuff, effect of different cuff material, shape, and positive expiratory pressure: a bench-top study, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.24, issue.2, pp.343-347, 2011.
DOI : 10.1007/s00134-010-2106-z

A. Torres and J. Carlet, Ventilator-associated pneumonia. European Task Force on ventilatorassociated pneumonia, Eur. Respir. J, vol.17, issue.5, pp.1034-1045, 2001.

M. Kollef, The Prevention of Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.340, issue.8, pp.627-634, 1999.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJM199902253400807

M. Kollef, B. Afessa, and A. Anzueto, Silver-Coated Endotracheal Tubes and Incidence of Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia, JAMA, vol.300, issue.7, pp.805-813, 2008.
DOI : 10.1001/jama.300.7.805

J. Muscedere, O. Rewa, and K. Mckechnie, Subglottic secretion drainage for the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia: A systematic review and meta-analysis*, Critical Care Medicine, vol.39, issue.8, pp.1985-1991, 2011.
DOI : 10.1097/CCM.0b013e318218a4d9

S. Dissanaike, T. Pham, and S. Shalhub, Effect of Immediate Enteral Feeding on Trauma Patients with an Open Abdomen: Protection from Nosocomial Infections, Journal of the American College of Surgeons, vol.207, issue.5, pp.690-697, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2008.06.332

K. Kudsk, M. Croce, and T. Fabian, Enteral Versus Parenteral Feeding Effects on Septic Morbidity After Blunt and Penetrating Abdominal Trauma, Annals of Surgery, vol.215, issue.5, pp.503-511, 1992.
DOI : 10.1097/00000658-199205000-00013

M. Koeman, A. Van-der-ven, and E. Hak, Oral Decontamination with Chlorhexidine Reduces the Incidence of Ventilator-associated Pneumonia, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.173, issue.12, pp.1348-1355, 2006.
DOI : 10.1164/rccm.200505-820OC

F. Fourrier, D. Dubois, and P. Pronnier, Effect of gingival and dental plaque antiseptic decontamination on nosocomial infections acquired in the intensive care unit: A double-blind placebo-controlled multicenter study*, Critical Care Medicine, vol.33, issue.8, pp.1728-1735, 2005.
DOI : 10.1097/01.CCM.0000171537.03493.B0

M. Klompas, Prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia, Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy, vol.8, issue.7, pp.791-800, 2010.
DOI : 10.1586/eri.10.59

L. Bouadma, E. Deslandes, and I. Lolom, Long???Term Impact of a Multifaceted Prevention Program on Ventilator???Associated Pneumonia in a Medical Intensive Care Unit, Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol.51, issue.10, pp.1115-1122, 2010.
DOI : 10.1086/656737

A. Morris, A. Hay, and D. Swann, Reducing ventilator-associated pneumonia in intensive care: Impact of implementing a care bundle*, Critical Care Medicine, vol.39, issue.10, pp.2218-2224, 2011.
DOI : 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3182227d52

G. Hernández, P. Rico, E. Díaz, and J. Rello, Nosocomial lung infections in adult intensive care units, Microbes and Infection, vol.6, issue.11, pp.1004-1014, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/j.micinf.2004.05.019

T. Hedrick, R. Smith, and S. Mcelearney, Differences in Early- and Late-Onset Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia Between Surgical and Trauma Patients in a Combined Surgical or Trauma Intensive Care Unit, The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care, vol.64, issue.3, pp.714-720, 2008.
DOI : 10.1097/TA.0b013e31811ec18e

J. Hunter, Ventilator associated pneumonia, BMJ, vol.344, issue.may29 1, p.3325, 2012.
DOI : 10.1136/bmj.e3325

L. Nicod, Pulmonary Defence Mechanisms, Respiration, vol.66, issue.1, pp.2-11, 1999.
DOI : 10.1159/000029329

J. Mizgerd, Acute Lower Respiratory Tract Infection, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.358, issue.7, pp.716-727, 2008.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJMra074111

T. Martin and C. Frevert, Innate Immunity in the Lungs, Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society, vol.2, issue.5, pp.403-411, 2005.
DOI : 10.1513/pats.200508-090JS

C. Delclaux and E. Azoulay, Inflammatory response to infectious pulmonary injury, European Respiratory Journal, vol.22, issue.Supplement 42, pp.10-14, 2003.
DOI : 10.1183/09031936.03.00420203

R. Richardson, Identification of patients at highest risk for ventilator-associated pneumonia in the surgical intensive care unit, The American Journal of Surgery, vol.179, issue.2, pp.8-11, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/S0002-9610(00)00310-X

P. Zhang, W. Summer, G. Bagby, and S. Nelson, Innate immunity and pulmonary host defense, Immunological Reviews, vol.173, issue.1, pp.39-51, 2000.
DOI : 10.1034/j.1600-065X.2000.917306.x

S. Rehm, G. Gross, and A. Pierce, Early bacterial clearance from murine lungs. Species-dependent phagocyte response., Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol.66, issue.2, pp.194-199, 1980.
DOI : 10.1172/JCI109844

URL : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC371698

J. Marshall and M. Innes, Intensive care unit management of intra-abdominal infection, Critical Care Medicine, vol.31, issue.8, pp.2228-2237, 2003.
DOI : 10.1097/01.CCM.0000087326.59341.51

P. Montravers, A. Lepape, and L. Dubreuil, Clinical and microbiological profiles of community-acquired and nosocomial intra-abdominal infections: results of the French prospective, observational EBIIA study, Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, vol.63, issue.4, pp.785-794, 2009.
DOI : 10.1093/jac/dkp005

A. Basoli, P. Chirletti, and E. Cirino, A Prospective, Double-Blind, Multicenter, Randomized Trial Comparing Ertapenem 3 Vs ???5 Days in Community-Acquired Intraabdominal Infection, Journal of Gastrointestinal Surgery, vol.195, issue.1, pp.592-600, 2008.
DOI : 10.1007/s11605-007-0277-x

E. Cercenado, L. Torroba, and R. Cantón, Multicenter Study Evaluating the Role of Enterococci in Secondary Bacterial Peritonitis, Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol.48, issue.2, pp.456-459, 2010.
DOI : 10.1128/JCM.01782-09

P. Montravers, A. Chalfine, and R. Gauzit, Clinical and Therapeutic Features of Nonpostoperative Nosocomial Intra-abdominal Infections, Annals of Surgery, vol.239, issue.3, pp.409-416, 2004.
DOI : 10.1097/01.sla.0000114214.68169.e9

J. Marshall, Intra-abdominal infections, Microbes and Infection, vol.6, issue.11, pp.1015-1025, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/j.micinf.2004.05.017

D. Wittmann, M. Schein, and R. Condon, Management of Secondary Peritonitis, Annals of Surgery, vol.224, issue.1, pp.10-18, 1996.
DOI : 10.1097/00000658-199607000-00003

C. Jacobi, J. Ordemann, and B. Böhm, Does laparoscopy increase bacteremia and endotoxemia in a peritonitis model?, Surgical Endoscopy, vol.11, issue.3, pp.235-238, 1997.
DOI : 10.1007/s004649900333

J. Osterberg, M. Ljungdahl, M. Lundholm, L. Engstrand, and U. Haglund, Microbial translocation and inflammatory response in patients with acute peritonitis, Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology, vol.62, issue.7, pp.657-664, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/S0002-9610(00)00410-4

E. Otero-antón, A. González-quintela, and A. López-soto, Cecal Ligation and Puncture as a Model of Sepsis in the Rat: Influence of the Puncture Size on Mortality, Bacteremia, Endotoxemia and Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha Levels, European Surgical Research, vol.33, issue.2, pp.77-79, 2001.
DOI : 10.1159/000049698

G. Matute-bello, C. Frevert, and O. Kajikawa, Septic Shock and Acute Lung Injury in Rabbits with Peritonitis, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.163, issue.1, pp.234-243, 2001.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.163.1.9909034

C. Adrie, C. Alberti, and C. Chaix-couturier, Epidemiology and economic evaluation of severe sepsis in France: age, severity, infection site, and place of acquisition (community, hospital, or intensive care unit) as determinants of workload and cost, Journal of Critical Care, vol.20, issue.1, pp.46-58, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jcrc.2004.10.005

S. Muehlstedt, C. Richardson, M. Lyte, and J. Rodriguez, Systemic and pulmonary effector cell function after injury*, Critical Care Medicine, vol.30, issue.6, pp.1322-1326, 2002.
DOI : 10.1097/00003246-200206000-00029

R. Reddy, G. Chen, P. Tekchandani, and T. Standiford, Sepsis-Induced Immunosuppression From Bad to Worse, Immunologic Research, vol.24, issue.3, pp.273-287, 2001.
DOI : 10.1385/IR:24:3:273

R. Bone, . Sir-isaac-newton, . Sepsis, and C. Sirs, Sir Isaac Newton, sepsis, SIRS, and CARS, Critical Care Medicine, vol.24, issue.7, pp.1125-1128, 1996.
DOI : 10.1097/00003246-199607000-00010

J. Cavaillon and M. Adib-conquy, Bench-to-bedside review: endotoxin tolerance as a model of leukocyte reprogramming in sepsis, Critical Care, vol.10, issue.5, p.233, 2006.
DOI : 10.1186/cc5055

C. Munoz, J. Carlet, and C. Fitting, Dysregulation of in vitro cytokine production by monocytes during sepsis., Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol.88, issue.5, pp.1747-1754, 1991.
DOI : 10.1172/JCI115493

F. Stephan, K. Yang, and J. Tankovic, Impairment of polymorphonuclear neutrophil functions precedes nosocomial infections in critically ill patients, Critical Care Medicine, vol.30, issue.2, pp.315-322, 2002.
DOI : 10.1097/00003246-200202000-00009

L. Parker, E. Jones, and L. Prince, Endotoxin tolerance induces selective alterations in neutrophil function, Journal of Leukocyte Biology, vol.78, issue.6, pp.1301-1305, 2005.
DOI : 10.1189/jlb.0405236

J. Alves-filho, F. Spiller, and F. Cunha, NEUTROPHIL PARALYSIS IN SEPSIS, Shock, vol.34, issue.Suppl 1, pp.15-21, 2010.
DOI : 10.1097/SHK.0b013e3181e7e61b

R. Hotchkiss and I. Karl, The Pathophysiology and Treatment of Sepsis, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.348, issue.2, pp.138-150, 2003.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJMra021333

J. Boomer, K. To, and K. Chang, Immunosuppression in Patients Who Die of Sepsis and Multiple Organ Failure, JAMA, vol.306, issue.23, pp.2594-2605, 2011.
DOI : 10.1001/jama.2011.1829

R. Munford and J. Pugin, Normal Responses to Injury Prevent Systemic Inflammation and Can Be Immunosuppressive, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.163, issue.2, pp.316-321, 2001.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.163.2.2007102

K. Tschaikowsky, M. Hedwig-geissing, and A. Schiele, Coincidence of pro- and anti-inflammatory responses in the early phase of severe sepsis: Longitudinal study of mononuclear histocompatibility leukocyte antigen-DR expression, procalcitonin, C-reactive protein, and changes in T-cell subsets in septic and postoperative patients, Critical Care Medicine, vol.30, issue.5, pp.1015-1023, 2002.
DOI : 10.1097/00003246-200205000-00010

R. Hotchkiss and D. Nicholson, Apoptosis and caspases regulate death and inflammation in sepsis, Nature Reviews Immunology, vol.176, issue.11
DOI : 10.1038/nri1943

S. Lendemans, A. Peszko, and R. Oberbeck, MICROCIRCULATORY ALTERATIONS OF HEPATIC AND MESENTERIC MICROCIRCULATION IN ENDOTOXIN TOLERANCE, Shock, vol.29, issue.2, pp.223-231, 2008.
DOI : 10.1097/SHK.0b013e3180ca9ef3

E. Murphey, G. Fang, T. Varma, and E. Sherwood, IMPROVED BACTERIAL CLEARANCE AND DECREASED MORTALITY CAN BE INDUCED BY LPS TOLERANCE AND IS NOT DEPENDENT UPON IFN-??, Shock, vol.27, issue.3, pp.289-295, 2007.
DOI : 10.1097/01.shk.0000245024.93740.28

E. Murphey and E. Sherwood, BACTERIAL CLEARANCE AND MORTALITY ARE NOT IMPROVED BY A COMBINATION OF IL-10 NEUTRALIZATION AND IFN-?? ADMINISTRATION IN A MURINE MODEL OF POST-CLP IMMUNOSUPPRESSION, Shock, vol.26, issue.4, pp.417-424, 2006.
DOI : 10.1097/01.shk.0000226343.70904.4f

E. Murphey, G. Fang, and E. Sherwood, ENDOTOXIN PRETREATMENT IMPROVES BACTERIAL CLEARANCE AND DECREASES MORTALITY IN MICE CHALLENGED WITH STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS, Shock, vol.29, issue.4, pp.512-518, 2008.
DOI : 10.1097/shk.0b013e318150776f

T. Sterns, N. Pollak, B. Echtenacher, and D. Männel, Divergence of Protection Induced by Bacterial Products and Sepsis-Induced Immune Suppression, Infection and Immunity, vol.73, issue.8, pp.4905-4912, 2005.
DOI : 10.1128/IAI.73.8.4905-4912.2005

C. Lam, E. Schütze, and J. Hildebrandt, SDZ MRL 953, a novel immunostimulatory monosaccharidic lipid A analog with an improved therapeutic window in experimental sepsis., Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, vol.35, issue.3
DOI : 10.1128/AAC.35.3.500

P. Knolle, E. Löser, and U. Protzer, Regulation of endotoxin-induced IL-6 production in liver sinusoidal endothelial cells and Kupffer cells by IL-10, Clinical & Experimental Immunology, vol.107, issue.3, pp.555-561, 1997.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-2249.1997.d01-959.x

J. Cavaillon and D. Annane, Compartmentalization of the inflammatory response in sepsis and SIRS, Journal of Endotoxin Research, vol.12, issue.3
DOI : 10.1179/096805106X102246

T. Varma, M. Durham, and E. Murphey, Endotoxin Priming Improves Clearance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in Wild-Type and Interleukin-10 Knockout Mice, Infection and Immunity, vol.73, issue.11, pp.7340-7347, 2005.
DOI : 10.1128/IAI.73.11.7340-7347.2005

J. Chase, W. Kubey, and M. Dulek, Effect of monophosphoryl lipid A on host resistance to bacterial infection, Infect. Immun, vol.53, issue.3, pp.711-712, 1986.

J. Wang, M. Doyle, and B. Manning, Cutting Edge: Bacterial Lipoprotein Induces Endotoxin-Independent Tolerance to Septic Shock, The Journal of Immunology, vol.170, issue.1, pp.14-18, 2003.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.170.1.14

M. Lu, A. Varley, S. Ohta, J. Hardwick, and R. Munford, Host Inactivation of Bacterial Lipopolysaccharide Prevents Prolonged Tolerance Following Gram-Negative Bacterial Infection, Cell Host & Microbe, vol.4, issue.3, pp.293-302, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.chom.2008.06.009

A. Draisma, P. Pickkers, M. Bouw, and J. Van-der-hoeven, Development of endotoxin tolerance in humans in vivo, Critical Care Medicine, vol.37, issue.4, pp.1261-1267, 2009.
DOI : 10.1097/CCM.0b013e31819c3c67

S. Nelson, C. Chidiac, G. Bagby, and W. Summer, Endotoxin-induced suppression of lung host defenses, J Med, vol.21, issue.12, pp.85-103, 1990.

M. Angele and E. Faist, Clinical review: immunodepression in the surgical patient and increased susceptibility to infection, Critical Care, vol.6, issue.4, pp.298-305, 2002.
DOI : 10.1186/cc1514

A. Franke, W. Lante, and L. Zoeller, Delayed recovery of human leukocyte antigen-DR expression after cardiac surgery with early non-lethal postoperative complications: only an epiphenomenon?, Interactive CardioVascular and Thoracic Surgery, vol.7, issue.2, pp.207-211, 2008.
DOI : 10.1510/icvts.2007.158899

D. Little, M. Regan, R. Keane, and D. Bouchier-hayes, Perioperative immune modulation, Surgery, vol.114, issue.1, pp.87-91, 1993.

S. Helmy, M. Wahby, and M. El-nawaway, The effect of anaesthesia and surgery on plasma cytokine production, Anaesthesia, vol.54, issue.8, pp.733-738, 1999.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-2044.1999.00947.x

F. Kimura, H. Shimizu, H. Yoshidome, M. Ohtsuka, and M. Miyazaki, Immunosuppression following surgical and traumatic injury, Surgery Today, vol.6, issue.4, pp.793-808, 2010.
DOI : 10.1007/s00595-010-4323-z

H. Marriott and D. Dockrell, THE ROLE OF THE MACROPHAGE IN LUNG DISEASE MEDIATED BY BACTERIA, Experimental Lung Research, vol.67, issue.10, pp.493-505, 2007.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.170.1.430

C. Fitting, S. Dhawan, and J. Cavaillon, Compartmentalization of Tolerance to Endotoxin, The Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol.189, issue.7, pp.1295-1303, 2004.
DOI : 10.1086/382657

J. Hoogerwerf, M. Leendertse, and C. Wieland, Loss of Suppression of Tumorigenicity 2 (ST2) Gene Reverses Sepsis-induced Inhibition of Lung Host Defense in Mice, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.183, issue.7, pp.932-940, 2011.
DOI : 10.1164/rccm.201006-0934OC

B. Neumann, N. Zantl, and A. Veihelmann, Mechanisms of acute inflammatory lung injury induced by abdominal sepsis, International Immunology, vol.11, issue.2, pp.217-227, 1999.
DOI : 10.1093/intimm/11.2.217

J. Van-till, S. Van-veen, and O. Van-ruler, THE INNATE IMMUNE RESPONSE TO SECONDARY PERITONITIS, Shock, vol.PAP, issue.5, pp.504-517, 2007.
DOI : 10.1097/shk.0b013e318063e6ca

J. Reutershan and K. Ley, Bench-to-bedside review: acute respiratory distress syndrome -how neutrophils migrate into the lung, Critical Care, vol.8, issue.6, pp.453-461, 2004.
DOI : 10.1186/cc2881

M. Matthay and R. Zemans, The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome: Pathogenesis and Treatment, Annual Review of Pathology: Mechanisms of Disease, vol.6, issue.1, pp.147-163, 2011.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev-pathol-011110-130158

J. Balibrea and J. Arias-díaz, Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome in the Septic Surgical Patient, World Journal of Surgery, vol.27, issue.12, pp.1275-1284, 2003.
DOI : 10.1007/s00268-003-7258-3

M. Kinoshita, H. Mochizuki, and S. Ono, Pulmonary Neutrophil Accumulation Following Human Endotoxemia, Chest, vol.116, issue.6, pp.1709-1715, 1999.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.116.6.1709

C. Salkowski, G. Detore, A. Franks, M. Falk, and S. Vogel, Pulmonary and hepatic gene expression following cecal ligation and puncture: monophosphoryl lipid A prophylaxis attenuates sepsis-induced cytokine and chemokine expression and neutrophil infiltration, Infect. Immun, vol.66, issue.8, pp.3569-3578, 1998.

M. Steinhauser, C. Hogaboam, and S. Kunkel, IL-10 is a major mediator of sepsis-induced impairment in lung antibacterial host defense, J. Immunol, vol.162, issue.1, pp.392-399, 1999.

J. Deng, G. Cheng, and M. Newstead, Sepsis-induced suppression of lung innate immunity is mediated by IRAK-M, Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol.116, issue.9, pp.2532-2542, 2006.
DOI : 10.1172/JCI28054

J. Richardson, M. Decamp, R. Garrison, and D. Fry, Pulmonary Infection Complicating Intra-Abdominal Sepsis, Annals of Surgery, vol.195, issue.6, pp.732-738, 1982.
DOI : 10.1097/00000658-198206000-00009

J. Muenzer, C. Davis, and B. Dunne, PNEUMONIA AFTER CECAL LIGATION AND PUNCTURE, Shock, vol.26, issue.6, pp.565-570, 2006.
DOI : 10.1097/01.shk.0000235130.82363.ed

F. Pène, B. Zuber, and E. Courtine, Dendritic Cells Modulate Lung Response to Pseudomonas aeruginosa in a Murine Model of Sepsis-Induced Immune Dysfunction, The Journal of Immunology, vol.181, issue.12, pp.8513-8520, 2008.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.181.12.8513

J. Richardson, D. Fry, V. Arsdall, L. Flint, and L. Jr, Delayed pulmonary clearance of gram-negative bacteria: The role of intraperitoneal sepsis, Journal of Surgical Research, vol.26, issue.5, pp.499-503, 1979.
DOI : 10.1016/0022-4804(79)90040-4

R. Reddy, G. Chen, and M. Newstead, Alveolar Macrophage Deactivation in Murine Septic Peritonitis: Role of Interleukin 10, Infection and Immunity, vol.69, issue.3, pp.1394-1401, 2001.
DOI : 10.1128/IAI.69.3.1394-1401.2001

J. White, S. Nelson, J. Winkelstein, F. Booth, and G. Jakab, Impairment of Antibacterial Defense Mechanisms of the Lung by Extrapulmonary Infection, Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol.153, issue.2, pp.202-208, 1986.
DOI : 10.1093/infdis/153.2.202

P. Manderscheid, R. Bodkin, and B. Davidson, Bacterial Clearance and Cytokine Profiles in a Murine Model of Postsurgical Nosocomial Pneumonia, Clinical and Vaccine Immunology, vol.11, issue.4, pp.742-751, 2004.
DOI : 10.1128/CDLI.11.4.742-751.2004

R. Reddy, G. Chen, and K. Tateda, Selective inhibition of COX-2 improves early survival in murine endotoxemia but not in bacterial peritonitis, Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol, vol.281, issue.3, pp.537-543, 2001.

C. Mason, E. Dobard, W. Summer, and S. Nelson, Intraportal Lipopolysaccharide Suppresses Pulmonary Antibacterial Defense Mechanisms, The Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol.176, issue.5, pp.1293-1302, 1997.
DOI : 10.1086/514125

URL : http://jid.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/short/176/5/1293

R. Celis, A. Torres, and J. Gatell, Nosocomial Pneumonia, Chest, vol.93, issue.2, pp.318-324, 1988.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.93.2.318

D. Thompson, M. Makary, T. Dorman, and P. Pronovost, Clinical and Economic Outcomes of Hospital Acquired Pneumonia in Intra-Abdominal Surgery Patients, Annals of Surgery, vol.243, issue.4, pp.547-552, 2006.
DOI : 10.1097/01.sla.0000207097.38963.3b

J. Merlino, C. Yowler, and M. Malangoni, Nosocomial Infections Adversely Affect the Outcomes of Patients with Serious Intraabdominal Infections, Surgical Infections, vol.5, issue.1, pp.21-27, 2004.
DOI : 10.1089/109629604773860273

R. Mustard, J. Bohnen, C. Rosati, and B. Schouten, Pneumonia Complicating Abdominal Sepsis, Archives of Surgery, vol.126, issue.2, pp.170-175, 1991.
DOI : 10.1001/archsurg.1991.01410260058008

R. Dellinger, M. Levy, and J. Carlet, Surviving Sepsis Campaign, Critical Care Medicine, vol.41, issue.2, pp.296-327, 2008.
DOI : 10.1097/CCM.0b013e31827e83af

M. Besselink, H. Van-santvoort, and W. Renooij, Intestinal Barrier Dysfunction in a Randomized Trial of a Specific Probiotic Composition in Acute Pancreatitis, Annals of Surgery, vol.250, issue.5, pp.712-719, 2009.
DOI : 10.1097/SLA.0b013e3181bce5bd

R. Hubmayr, H. Burchardi, and M. Elliot, Statement of the 4th International Consensus Conference in Critical Care on ICU-Acquired Pneumonia--Chicago, Illinois, Intensive Care Med, vol.28, issue.11, pp.1521-1536, 2002.

J. Fine and R. Gray, A Proportional Hazards Model for the Subdistribution of a Competing Risk, Journal of the American Statistical Association, vol.69, issue.446, pp.496-509
DOI : 10.2307/2530374

J. Beyersmann and M. Schumacher, Time-dependent covariates in the proportional subdistribution hazards model for competing risks, Biostatistics, vol.9, issue.4, pp.765-776, 2008.
DOI : 10.1093/biostatistics/kxn009

S. Copeland, H. Warren, S. Lowry, S. Calvano, and D. Remick, Acute Inflammatory Response to Endotoxin in Mice and Humans, Clinical and Vaccine Immunology, vol.12, issue.1, pp.60-67, 2005.
DOI : 10.1128/CDLI.12.1.60-67.2005

J. Steinberg, J. Halter, H. Schiller, L. Gatto, and G. Nieman, THE DEVELOPMENT OF ACUTE RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME AFTER GUT ISCHEMIA/REPERFUSION INJURY FOLLOWED BY FECAL PERITONITIS IN PIGS: A CLINICALLY RELEVANT MODEL, Shock, vol.23, issue.2, pp.129-137, 2005.
DOI : 10.1097/01.shk.0000148053.66645.2e

J. Muenzer, C. Davis, and K. Chang, Characterization and Modulation of the Immunosuppressive Phase of Sepsis, Infection and Immunity, vol.78, issue.4, pp.1582-1592, 2010.
DOI : 10.1128/IAI.01213-09

M. Steinmüller, M. Srivastava, and W. Kuziel, Endotoxin induced peritonitis elicits monocyte immigration into the lung: implications on alveolar space inflammatory responsiveness, Respiratory Research, vol.164, issue.1, p.30, 2006.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.164.7.3476

F. Philippart, C. Fitting, and J. Cavaillon, Lung microenvironment contributes to the resistance of alveolar macrophages to develop tolerance to endotoxin Available at, Crit. Care Med, 2012.

J. Hoogerwerf, A. De-vos, and C. Van-'t-veer, Priming of Alveolar Macrophages upon Instillation of Lipopolysaccharide in the Human Lung, American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology, vol.42, issue.3, pp.349-356, 2010.
DOI : 10.1165/rcmb.2008-0362OC

N. Singh, M. Falestiny, and P. Rogers, Pulmonary Infiltrates in the Surgical ICU, Chest, vol.114, issue.4, pp.1129-1136, 1998.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.114.4.1129

O. Kumpf, E. Giamarellos-bourboulis, and A. Koch, Influence of genetic variations in TLR4 and TIRAP/Mal on the course of sepsis and pneumonia and cytokine release: an observational study in three cohorts, Critical Care, vol.14, issue.3, p.103, 2010.
DOI : 10.1186/cc9047