A. Rahman and D. Isenberg, Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.358, issue.9, pp.929-93910, 2008.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJMra071297

R. Cervera, M. Khamashta, and J. Font, Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, Medicine, vol.72, issue.2, pp.113-124, 1993.
DOI : 10.1097/00005792-199303000-00005

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01563359

S. Jarukitsopa, D. Hoganson, and C. Crowson, Epidemiology of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus and Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus in a Predominantly White Population in the United States, Arthritis Care & Research, vol.38, issue.6, pp.817-828, 2015.
DOI : 10.3899/jrheum.101149

A. Kuhn and A. Landmann, The classification and diagnosis of cutaneous lupus erythematosus, Journal of Autoimmunity, vol.48, issue.49
DOI : 10.1016/j.jaut.2014.01.021

A. Kuhn, V. Ruland, and G. Bonsmann, Cutaneous lupus erythematosus: Update of therapeutic options, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, vol.65, issue.6, pp.179-193, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jaad.2010.06.018

N. Ezra and J. Jorizzo, Hydroxychloroquine and smoking in patients with cutaneous lupus erythematosus, Clinical and Experimental Dermatology, vol.28, issue.Suppl. 1, pp.327-334, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/j.clindermatol.2010.03.021

URL : http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2230.2011.04266.x/pdf

J. Kraak, W. Van-ketel, J. Prakken, V. Zwet, W. The et al., The Value of Hydroxychloroquine (Plaquenil) for the Treatment of Chronic Discoid Lupus Erythematosus; a Double Blind Trial, Dermatology, vol.130, issue.5, pp.293-305, 1965.
DOI : 10.1159/000254544

D. Deapen, A. Escalante, and L. Weinrib, A revised estimate of twin concordance in systemic lupus erythematosus, Arthritis Rheum, vol.35, issue.3, pp.311-318, 1992.

A. Belot and R. Cimaz, Monogenic forms of systemic lupus erythematosus: new insights into SLE pathogenesis, Pediatric Rheumatology, vol.10, issue.1, 2012.
DOI : 10.1126/scitranslmed.3001201

J. Bentham and T. Vyse, The development of genome-wide association studies and their application to complex diseases, including lupus, Lupus, vol.333, issue.12, pp.1205-1213, 2013.
DOI : 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61354-2

G. Rai, R. Rai, A. Saeidian, and M. Rai, Microarray to deep sequencing: transcriptome and miRNA profiling to elucidate molecular pathways in systemic lupus erythematosus, Immunologic Research, vol.67, issue.49
DOI : 10.1002/art.39110

X. Kim-howard, A. Maiti, and J. Anaya, ITGAM coding variant (rs1143679) influences the risk of renal disease, discoid rash and immunological manifestations in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus with European ancestry, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, vol.69, issue.7, pp.1329-1332, 2010.
DOI : 10.1136/ard.2009.120543

J. Ellyard, R. Jerjen, and J. Martin, Brief Report: Identification of a Pathogenic Variant in TREX1 in Early-Onset Cerebral Systemic Lupus Erythematosus by Whole-Exome Sequencing, Arthritis & Rheumatology, vol.12, issue.Suppl 1, pp.3382-3386, 2014.
DOI : 10.1038/gene.2010.73

C. Dai, Y. Deng, A. Quinlan, F. Gaskin, B. Tsao et al., Genetics of systemic lupus erythematosus: immune responses and end organ resistance to damage, Current Opinion in Immunology, vol.31, 2014.
DOI : 10.1016/j.coi.2014.10.004

T. Niewold, J. Kelly, M. Flesch, L. Espinoza, J. Harley et al., Association of the IRF5 risk haplotype with high serum interferon-?? activity in systemic lupus erythematosus patients, Arthritis & Rheumatism, vol.50, issue.8, pp.2481-2487, 2008.
DOI : 10.1002/art.23613

S. Wang, F. Wen, G. Wiley, M. Kinter, and P. Gaffney, An Enhancer Element Harboring Variants Associated with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Engages the TNFAIP3 Promoter to Influence A20 Expression, PLoS Genetics, vol.3, issue.9
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pgen.1003750.s010

D. Morris, M. Fernando, and K. Taylor, MHC associations with clinical and autoantibody manifestations in European SLE, Genes and Immunity, vol.106, issue.4, pp.210-217, 2014.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.0909307106

URL : http://www.nature.com/gene/journal/v15/n4/pdf/gene20146a.pdf

N. Bottini and E. Peterson, Tyrosine Phosphatase PTPN22: Multifunctional Regulator of Immune Signaling, Development, and Disease, Annual Review of Immunology, vol.32, issue.1, pp.83-11910, 2014.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev-immunol-032713-120249

N. Manjarrez-orduño, E. Marasco, and S. Chung, CSK regulatory polymorphism is associated with systemic lupus erythematosus and influences B-cell signaling and activation, Nature Genetics, vol.167, issue.11, pp.1227-1230, 2012.
DOI : 10.1006/meth.2001.1262

M. Jeffries, M. Dozmorov, Y. Tang, J. Merrill, J. Wren et al., Genome-wide DNA methylation patterns in CD4+ T cells from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus, Epigenetics, vol.6, issue.5, pp.593-601, 2011.
DOI : 10.1177/096120339700600326

P. Coit, S. Yalavarthi, and M. Ognenovski, Epigenome profiling reveals significant DNA demethylation of interferon signature genes in lupus neutrophils, Journal of Autoimmunity, vol.58, pp.59-66, 2015.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jaut.2015.01.004

Z. Zhang, L. Song, K. Maurer, M. Petri, and K. Sullivan, Global H4 acetylation analysis by ChIP-chip in systemic lupus erythematosus monocytes, Genes and Immunity, vol.163, issue.2, pp.124-133, 2010.
DOI : 10.1002/eji.200738008

Z. Wu, X. Li, H. Qin, X. Zhu, J. Xu et al., Ultraviolet B enhances DNA hypomethylation of CD4+ T cells in systemic lupus erythematosus via inhibiting DNMT1 catalytic activity, Journal of Dermatological Science, vol.71, issue.3, pp.167-173, 2013.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2013.04.022

P. Nelson, P. Rylance, D. Roden, M. Trela, and N. Tugnet, Viruses as potential pathogenic agents in systemic lupus erythematosus, Lupus, vol.161, issue.6, pp.596-60510, 2014.
DOI : 10.1097/00008390-200112000-00010

J. James, K. Kaufman, A. Farris, E. Taylor-albert, T. Lehman et al., An increased prevalence of Epstein-Barr virus infection in young patients suggests a possible etiology for systemic lupus erythematosus., Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol.100, issue.12, pp.3019-302610, 1997.
DOI : 10.1172/JCI119856

T. Niewold, D. Clark, R. Salloum, and B. Poole, Interferon Alpha in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, vol.25, issue.11, pp.948364-948374, 2010.
DOI : 10.1002/art.24557

C. Münz, J. Lünemann, M. Getts, and S. Miller, Antiviral immune responses: triggers of or triggered by autoimmunity?, Nature Reviews Immunology, vol.34, issue.4, pp.246-25810, 2009.
DOI : 10.1001/jama.293.20.2496

C. Vedove, D. Giglio, M. Schena, D. Girolomoni, and G. , Drug-induced lupus erythematosus, Archives of Dermatological Research, vol.167, issue.Supplement, pp.99-105, 2009.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.167.12.6821

J. Portanova, R. Arndt, E. Tan, and B. Kotzin, Anti-histone antibodies in idiopathic and drug-induced lupus recognize distinct intrahistone regions, J Immunol Baltim Md, vol.138, issue.2, pp.446-451, 1950.

M. Pretel, L. Marquès, and A. España, Drug-Induced Lupus Erythematosus, Actas Dermo-Sifiliogr??ficas (English Edition), vol.105, issue.1, pp.18-30, 2014.
DOI : 10.1016/j.adengl.2012.09.025

X. Jiang, G. Khursigara, and R. Rubin, Transformation of lupus-inducing drugs to cytotoxic products by activated neutrophils, Science, vol.266, issue.5186, pp.810-813, 1994.
DOI : 10.1126/science.7973636

R. Yung, K. Johnson, and B. Richardson, New concepts in the pathogenesis of druginduced lupus, Lab Investig J Tech Methods Pathol, vol.73, issue.6, pp.746-759, 1995.

L. Mazari, M. Ouarzane, and M. Zouali, Subversion of B lymphocyte tolerance by hydralazine, a potential mechanism for drug-induced lupus, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.65, issue.5, pp.6317-6322, 2007.
DOI : 10.1136/ard.2005.039438

B. Reed, J. Huff, S. Jones, P. Orton, L. Lee et al., Subacute Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus Associated with Hydrochlorothiazide Therapy, Annals of Internal Medicine, vol.103, issue.1, pp.49-51, 1985.
DOI : 10.7326/0003-4819-103-1-49

G. Lowe, G. Lowe, C. Henderson, R. Grau, C. Hansen et al., A systematic review of drug-induced subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus, British Journal of Dermatology, vol.43, issue.Suppl., pp.465-472, 2011.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-4632.2004.02013.x

L. Sandholdt, R. Laurinaviciene, and A. Bygum, Proton pump inhibitor-induced subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus, British Journal of Dermatology, vol.13, issue.2, pp.342-351, 2014.
DOI : 10.2340/00015555-1760

URL : http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bjd.12699/pdf

E. Williams, S. Gadola, and C. Edwards, Anti-TNF-induced lupus, Rheumatology, vol.48, issue.7, 2009.
DOI : 10.1093/rheumatology/kep080

M. Hochberg, Updating the American college of rheumatology revised criteria for the classification of systemic lupus erythematosus, Arthritis & Rheumatism, vol.74, issue.9, pp.1725-1735, 1997.
DOI : 10.1093/ajcp/94.4.476

A. Kuhn, M. Sonntag, and D. Richter-hintz, Phototesting in lupus erythematosus: A 15-year experience, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, vol.45, issue.1, pp.86-95, 2001.
DOI : 10.1067/mjd.2001.114589

E. Robinson and V. Werth, The role of cytokines in the pathogenesis of cutaneous lupus erythematosus, Cytokine, vol.73, issue.2, 2015.
DOI : 10.1016/j.cyto.2015.01.031

C. Sáenz-corral, M. Vega-memíje, and E. Martínez-luna, Apoptosis in chronic cutaneous lupus erythematosus, discoid lupus, and lupus profundus, Int J Clin Exp Pathol, vol.8, issue.6, pp.7260-7265, 2015.

J. Lin, J. Dutz, R. Sontheimer, and V. Werth, Pathophysiology of Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus, Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology, vol.6, issue.Suppl 1, pp.85-106, 2007.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.164.11.6046

A. Kuhn, M. Herrmann, and S. Kleber, Accumulation of apoptotic cells in the epidermis of patients with cutaneous lupus erythematosus after ultraviolet irradiation, Arthritis & Rheumatism, vol.32, issue.3, pp.939-950, 2006.
DOI : 10.1161/01.CIR.99.21.2757

Q. Yin, X. Xu, Y. Lin, J. Lv, L. Zhao et al., Ultraviolet B irradiation induces skin accumulation of plasmacytoid dendritic cells: A possible role for chemerin, Autoimmunity, vol.47, issue.3
DOI : 10.1177/0961203310370045

S. Zahn, M. Graef, and N. Patsinakidis, Ultraviolet light protection by a sunscreen prevents interferon-driven skin inflammation in cutaneous lupus erythematosus, Experimental Dermatology, vol.23, issue.7, pp.516-518, 2014.
DOI : 10.1111/exd.12428

K. Dorgham, Z. Amoura, and C. Parizot, Ultraviolet light converts propranolol, a nonselective ??-blocker and potential lupus-inducing drug, into a proinflammatory AhR ligand, European Journal of Immunology, vol.44, issue.Suppl 5, pp.3174-3187, 2015.
DOI : 10.1002/jms.1551

URL : http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/eji.201445144/pdf

J. Buyon, M. Petri, and M. Kim, The Effect of Combined Estrogen and Progesterone Hormone Replacement Therapy on Disease Activity in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: A Randomized Trial, Annals of Internal Medicine, vol.142, issue.12_Part_1, pp.953-962, 2005.
DOI : 10.7326/0003-4819-142-12_Part_1-200506210-00004

M. Petri, M. Kim, and K. Kalunian, Combined Oral Contraceptives in Women with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.353, issue.24, pp.2550-2558, 2005.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJMoa051135

F. Jiang, S. Li, and C. Jia, Smoking and the risk of systemic lupus erythematosus: an updated systematic review and cumulative meta-analysis, Clinical Rheumatology, vol.20, issue.9, pp.1885-1892, 2015.
DOI : 10.1016/j.tig.2004.06.014

K. Costenbader and E. Karlson, Cigarette smoking and autoimmune disease: what can we learn from epidemiology?, Lupus, vol.45, issue.6, pp.737-745, 2006.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-2265.1996.8220832.x

T. Kaisho, Pathogen sensors and chemokine receptors in dendritic cell subsets, Vaccine, vol.30, issue.52, pp.7652-7657, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.10.043

K. Migita, T. Miyashita, and Y. Maeda, Reduced blood BDCA-2+ (lymphoid) and CD11c+ (myeloid) dendritic cells in systemic lupus erythematosus, Clinical and Experimental Immunology, vol.71, issue.1, pp.84-91, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/S1074-7613(04)00108-6

URL : http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2249.2005.02897.x/pdf

M. Tucci, C. Quatraro, L. Lombardi, C. Pellegrino, F. Dammacco et al., Glomerular accumulation of plasmacytoid dendritic cells in active lupus nephritis: Role of interleukin-18, Arthritis & Rheumatism, vol.56, issue.1, pp.251-262, 2008.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.170.2.1084

L. Farkas, K. Beiske, F. Lund-johansen, P. Brandtzaeg, and F. Jahnsen, Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells (Natural Interferon- ??/??-Producing Cells) Accumulate in Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus Lesions, The American Journal of Pathology, vol.159, issue.1, pp.237-243, 2001.
DOI : 10.1016/S0002-9440(10)61689-6

URL : https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1850412/pdf

S. Blomberg, M. Eloranta, B. Cederblad, K. Nordlin, G. Alm et al., Presence of cutaneous interferon-a producing cells in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus, Lupus, vol.17, issue.7, pp.484-490, 2001.
DOI : 10.1016/0167-5699(96)10027-X

S. Rowland, J. Riggs, and S. Gilfillan, Early, transient depletion of plasmacytoid dendritic cells ameliorates autoimmunity in a lupus model, The Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol.152, issue.10, pp.1977-1991, 2014.
DOI : 10.1084/jem.20051696

O. Jin, S. Kavikondala, and M. Mok, Abnormalities in circulating plasmacytoid dendritic cells in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus, Arthritis Research & Therapy, vol.12, issue.4, pp.10-1186, 2010.
DOI : 10.1186/ar3075

R. Lande, D. Ganguly, and V. Facchinetti, Neutrophils Activate Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells by Releasing Self-DNA-Peptide Complexes in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, Science Translational Medicine, vol.206, issue.9, 2011.
DOI : 10.1084/jem.20090480

URL : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3399524

S. Zahn, C. Rehkämper, S. Ferring-schmitt, T. Bieber, T. Tüting et al., Interferon-?? stimulates TRAIL expression in human keratinocytes and peripheral blood mononuclear cells: implications for the pathogenesis of cutaneous lupus erythematosus, British Journal of Dermatology, vol.190, issue.5, pp.1118-1123, 2011.
DOI : 10.1084/jem.190.8.1155

T. Mcgaha, Y. Chen, B. Ravishankar, N. Van-rooijen, and M. Karlsson, Marginal zone macrophages suppress innate and adaptive immunity to apoptotic cells in the spleen, Blood, vol.117, issue.20, 2011.
DOI : 10.1182/blood-2010-11-320028

H. Li, Y. Fu, and Q. Wu, Interferon-induced mechanosensing defects impede apoptotic cell clearance in lupus, Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol.125, issue.7, pp.2877-289010, 2015.
DOI : 10.1172/JCI81059DS1

M. Sjöstrand, A. Johansson, L. Aqrawi, T. Olsson, M. Wahren-herlenius et al., The Expression of BAFF Is Controlled by IRF Transcription Factors, The Journal of Immunology, vol.196, issue.1, pp.91-96, 1950.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.1501061

K. Yasuda, C. Richez, and J. Maciaszek, Murine Dendritic Cell Type I IFN Production Induced by Human IgG-RNA Immune Complexes Is IFN Regulatory Factor (IRF)5 and IRF7 Dependent and Is Required for IL-6 Production, The Journal of Immunology, vol.178, issue.11, pp.6876-6885, 1950.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.178.11.6876

URL : http://www.jimmunol.org/content/jimmunol/178/11/6876.full.pdf

N. Toukap, A. Galant, C. Theate, and I. , Identification of distinct gene expression profiles in the synovium of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus, Arthritis & Rheumatism, vol.8, issue.5, pp.1579-1588, 2007.
DOI : 10.1002/art.22578

Z. Liu, R. Bethunaickan, and W. Huang, Interferon-?? accelerates murine systemic lupus erythematosus in a T cell-dependent manner, Arthritis & Rheumatism, vol.185, issue.1, pp.219-229, 2011.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.1000060

URL : http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/art.30087/pdf

A. Migliorini, M. Angelotti, and S. Mulay, The Antiviral Cytokines IFN-?? and IFN-?? Modulate Parietal Epithelial Cells and Promote Podocyte Loss, The American Journal of Pathology, vol.183, issue.2, pp.431-440, 2013.
DOI : 10.1016/j.ajpath.2013.04.017

G. Yu, T. Boone, and J. Delaney, APRIL and TALL-I and receptors BCMA and TACI: system for regulating humoral immunity, Nature Immunology, vol.1, issue.3, pp.252-25610, 2000.
DOI : 10.1038/79802

C. Smith and M. Kaplan, The role of neutrophils in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus, Current Opinion in Rheumatology, vol.27, issue.5, pp.448-453, 2015.
DOI : 10.1097/BOR.0000000000000197

F. Vincent, E. Morand, P. Schneider, and F. Mackay, The BAFF/APRIL system in SLE pathogenesis, Nature Reviews Rheumatology, vol.30, issue.6, pp.365-373, 2014.
DOI : 10.1016/j.imlet.2008.07.005

D. Lindau, J. Mussard, and A. Rabsteyn, TLR9 independent interferon ? production by neutrophils on NETosis in response to circulating chromatin

G. Garcia-romo, S. Caielli, and B. Vega, Netting Neutrophils Are Major Inducers of Type I IFN Production in Pediatric Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, Science Translational Medicine, vol.10, issue.5, 2011.
DOI : 10.1002/art.1780400928

J. Tian, A. Avalos, and S. Mao, Toll-like receptor 9???dependent activation by DNA-containing immune complexes is mediated by HMGB1 and RAGE, Nature Immunology, vol.198, issue.5, pp.487-49610, 1038.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.177.12.8701

Y. Li, P. Lee, and W. Reeves, Monocyte and Macrophage Abnormalities in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, Archivum Immunologiae et Therapiae Experimentalis, vol.7, issue.3, pp.355-364, 2010.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.166.1.6

URL : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3785254

R. Spada, J. Rojas, and D. Barber, Recent findings on the role of natural killer cells in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus, Journal of Leukocyte Biology, vol.98, issue.4, pp.479-4874, 2015.
DOI : 10.1189/jlb.4RU0315-081RR

B. Dema and N. Charles, Advances in mechanisms of systemic lupus erythematosus, Discov Med, vol.17, issue.95, pp.247-255, 2014.

O. Chan and M. Shlomchik, A new role for B cells in systemic autoimmunity: B cells promote spontaneous T cell activation in MRL-lpr/lpr mice, J Immunol Baltim Md, vol.160, issue.1, pp.51-59, 1950.

O. Chan, L. Hannum, A. Haberman, M. Madaio, and M. Shlomchik, A Novel Mouse with B Cells but Lacking Serum Antibody Reveals an Antibody-independent Role for B Cells in Murine Lupus, The Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol.161, issue.10, pp.1639-1648, 1999.
DOI : 10.1084/jem.184.5.2049

N. Giltiay, C. Chappell, and E. Clark, B-cell selection and the development of autoantibodies, Arthritis Research & Therapy, vol.14, issue.Suppl 4, 2012.
DOI : 10.1186/ar3803

F. Mackay and P. Schneider, Cracking the BAFF code, Nature Reviews Immunology, vol.173, issue.7, pp.491-502, 2009.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.173.4.2331

L. Kil, M. De-bruijn, and M. Van-nimwegen, Btk levels set the threshold for B-cell activation and negative selection of autoreactive B cells in mice, Blood, vol.119, issue.16, pp.3744-3756, 2012.
DOI : 10.1182/blood-2011-12-397919

J. Groom, C. Fletcher, and S. Walters, BAFF and MyD88 signals promote a lupuslike disease independent of T cells, The Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol.19, issue.8, pp.1959-1971, 2007.
DOI : 10.1126/science.1124978

H. Wardemann, S. Yurasov, A. Schaefer, J. Young, E. Meffre et al., Predominant Autoantibody Production by Early Human B Cell Precursors, Science, vol.301, issue.5638, pp.1374-1377, 2003.
DOI : 10.1126/science.1086907

C. Ravirajan, M. Rahman, and L. Papadaki, Genetic, structural and functional properties of an IgG DNA-binding monoclonal antibody from a lupus patient with nephritis, European Journal of Immunology, vol.169, issue.1, pp.339-3501521, 1998.
DOI : 10.1084/jem.169.6.1879

D. Vlahakos, M. Foster, A. Ucci, K. Barrett, S. Datta et al., Murine monoclonal anti-DNA antibodies penetrate cells, bind to nuclei, and induce glomerular proliferation and proteinuria in vivo, J Am Soc Nephrol JASN, vol.2, issue.8, pp.1345-1354, 1992.

C. Kramers, M. Hylkema, and M. Van-bruggen, Anti-nucleosome antibodies complexed to nucleosomal antigens show anti-DNA reactivity and bind to rat glomerular basement membrane in vivo., Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol.94, issue.2, pp.568-57710, 1994.
DOI : 10.1172/JCI117371

URL : http://www.jci.org/articles/view/117371/files/pdf

M. Van-bruggen, B. Walgreen, and T. Rijke, Antigen specificity of anti-nuclear antibodies complexed to nucleosomes determines glomerular basement membrane bindingin vivo, European Journal of Immunology, vol.7, issue.6, pp.1564-1569, 1997.
DOI : 10.1042/bj2440675

G. Mostoslavsky, R. Fischel, and N. Yachimovich, Lupus anti-DNA autoantibodies cross-react with a glomerular structural protein: a case for tissue injury by molecular mimicry, European Journal of Immunology, vol.13, issue.4, pp.1221-12271521, 2001.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.92.11.4768

B. Deocharan, X. Qing, J. Lichauco, and C. Putterman, Alpha-actinin is a cross-reactive renal target for pathogenic anti-DNA antibodies, J Immunol Baltim Md, vol.168, issue.6, pp.3072-3078, 1950.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.168.6.3072

URL : http://www.jimmunol.org/content/jimmunol/168/6/3072.full.pdf

A. Mak and N. Kow, The Pathology of T Cells in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, Journal of Immunology Research, vol.64, issue.9, pp.419029-419039, 2014.
DOI : 10.1002/art.34502

K. Shah, W. Lee, and S. Lee, Dysregulated balance of Th17 and Th1 cells in systemic lupus erythematosus, Arthritis Res Ther, vol.12, issue.2, pp.10-1186, 2010.

M. Longhi, C. Trumpfheller, and J. Idoyaga, Th1 immunity with poly IC as adjuvant, The Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol.161, issue.7
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.181.10.6923

URL : http://jem.rupress.org/content/jem/206/7/1589.full.pdf

M. Shin, N. Lee, and I. Kang, Effector T-cell subsets in systemic lupus erythematosus, Current Opinion in Rheumatology, vol.23, issue.5, pp.444-448, 2011.
DOI : 10.1097/BOR.0b013e328349a255

URL : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3489922

Z. Zhang, V. Kyttaris, and G. Tsokos, The Role of IL-23/IL-17 Axis in Lupus Nephritis, The Journal of Immunology, vol.183, issue.5, pp.3160-3169, 1950.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.0900385

R. Ettinger, G. Sims, and R. Robbins, IL-21 and BAFF/BLyS Synergize in Stimulating Plasma Cell Differentiation from a Unique Population of Human Splenic Memory B Cells, The Journal of Immunology, vol.178, issue.5, pp.2872-2882, 1950.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.178.5.2872

C. Scheinecker, M. Bonelli, and J. Smolen, Pathogenetic aspects of systemic lupus erythematosus with an emphasis on regulatory T cells, Journal of Autoimmunity, vol.35, issue.3, pp.269-275, 2010.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jaut.2010.06.018

O. Weigert, C. Von-spee, R. Undeutsch, L. Kloke, J. Humrich et al., CD4+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells prolong drug-induced disease remission in (NZBxNZW) F1 lupus mice, Arthritis Research & Therapy, vol.15, issue.1, pp.10-1186, 2013.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.0901163

URL : https://arthritis-research.biomedcentral.com/track/pdf/10.1186/ar4188?site=arthritis-research.biomedcentral.com

K. Matsuoka, J. Koreth, and H. Kim, Low-Dose Interleukin-2 Therapy Restores Regulatory T Cell Homeostasis in Patients with Chronic Graft-Versus-Host Disease, Science Translational Medicine, vol.62, issue.9, 2013.
DOI : 10.1002/art.27578

URL : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3686517

J. Humrich, C. Von-spee-mayer, and E. Siegert, Rapid induction of clinical remission by low-dose interleukin-2 in a patient with refractory SLE, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, vol.193, issue.4, pp.791-79210, 2015.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.1400977

A. Thornton and E. Shevach, Immunoregulatory T Cells Suppress Polyclonal T Cell Activation In Vitro by Inhibiting Interleukin 2 Production, The Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol.147, issue.2, pp.287-296, 1998.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1600-065X.1996.tb00897.x

URL : http://jem.rupress.org/content/jem/188/2/287.full.pdf

A. Mcnally, G. Hill, T. Sparwasser, R. Thomas, and R. Steptoe, CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells control CD8+ T-cell effector differentiation by modulating IL-2 homeostasis, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.80, issue.2, pp.7529-7534, 2011.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1440-1711.2002.01071.x

H. Lim, P. Hillsamer, A. Banham, and C. Kim, Cutting Edge: Direct Suppression of B Cells by CD4+CD25+ Regulatory T Cells, The Journal of Immunology, vol.175, issue.7, pp.4180-4183, 1950.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.175.7.4180

K. Ohl and K. Tenbrock, Regulatory T cells in systemic lupus erythematosus, European Journal of Immunology, vol.30, issue.Suppl 3), pp.344-355, 2015.
DOI : 10.1007/s10875-009-9325-5

S. Dolff, M. Bijl, M. Huitema, P. Limburg, C. Kallenberg et al., Disturbed Th1, Th2, Th17 and Treg balance in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus, Clinical Immunology, vol.141, issue.2, pp.197-204, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.clim.2011.08.005

A. Mathian, R. Jouenne, and D. Chader, Regulatory T Cell Responses to High-Dose Methylprednisolone in Active Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, PLOS ONE, vol.194, issue.8, 2015.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0143689.s002

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01272870

E. Hejazi and V. Werth, Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus: An Update on Pathogenesis, Diagnosis and Treatment, American Journal of Clinical Dermatology, vol.65, issue.4, pp.135-146, 2016.
DOI : 10.1002/art.37824

L. Arnaud, J. Fagot, A. Mathian, M. Paita, A. Fagot-campagna et al., Prevalence and incidence of systemic lupus erythematosus in France: A 2010 nation-wide population-based study, Autoimmunity Reviews, vol.13, issue.11, pp.1082-1089, 2014.
DOI : 10.1016/j.autrev.2014.08.034

O. Durosaro, M. Davis, K. Reed, and A. Rohlinger, Incidence of cutaneous lupus erythematosus: a population-based study, Arch Dermatol, vol.145, issue.3, pp.249-253, 1965.

C. Deligny, E. Clyti, and D. Sainte-marie, Incidence of chronic cutaneous lupus erythematosus in French Guiana: A retrospective population-based study, Arthritis Care & Research, vol.64, issue.2, pp.279-282, 2010.
DOI : 10.1097/00005792-198509000-00001

C. Grönhagen, C. Fored, F. Granath, and F. Nyberg, Cutaneous lupus erythematosus and the association with systemic lupus erythematosus: a population-based cohort of 1088 patients in Sweden, British Journal of Dermatology, vol.19, issue.6, pp.1335-1341, 2011.
DOI : 10.1177/0961203310370048

J. Gilliam and R. Sontheimer, Distinctive cutaneous subsets in the spectrum of lupus erythematosus, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, vol.4, issue.4, pp.471-475, 1981.
DOI : 10.1016/S0190-9622(81)80261-7

C. Biazar, J. Sigges, and N. Patsinakidis, Cutaneous lupus erythematosus: First multicenter database analysis of 1002 patients from the European Society of Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus (EUSCLE), Autoimmunity Reviews, vol.12, issue.3, pp.444-454, 2013.
DOI : 10.1016/j.autrev.2012.08.019

R. Sontheimer, J. Thomas, and J. Gilliam, Subacute Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus, Archives of Dermatology, vol.115, issue.12, pp.1409-1415, 1979.
DOI : 10.1001/archderm.1979.04010120007006

J. Bangert, R. Freeman, R. Sontheimer, and J. Gilliam, Subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus and discoid lupus erythematosus. Comparative histopathologic findings, Archives of Dermatology, vol.120, issue.3, pp.332-337, 1984.
DOI : 10.1001/archderm.120.3.332

K. David-bajar, S. Bennion, J. Despain, L. Golitz, and L. Lee, Clinical, Histologic, and Immunofluorescent Distinctions Between Subacute Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus and Discoid Lupus Erythematosus, Journal of Investigative Dermatology, vol.99, issue.3, pp.251-257, 1992.
DOI : 10.1111/1523-1747.ep12616582

URL : http://doi.org/10.1111/1523-1747.ep12616582

M. Vera-recabarren, M. García-carrasco, M. Ramos-casals, and C. Herrero, Comparative analysis of subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus and chronic cutaneous lupus erythematosus: clinical and immunological study of 270 patients, British Journal of Dermatology, vol.21, issue.1, pp.91-101, 2010.
DOI : 10.7326/0003-4819-103-1-49

V. Schmitt, A. Meuth, and S. Amler, Lupus erythematosus tumidus is a separate subtype of cutaneous lupus erythematosus, British Journal of Dermatology, vol.6, issue.1, pp.64-73, 2010.
DOI : 10.1038/jid.1993.16

A. Kuhn, V. Ruland, and G. Bonsmann, Photosensitivity, phototesting, and photoprotection in cutaneous lupus erythematosus, Lupus, vol.433, issue.9, pp.1036-104610, 2010.
DOI : 10.1016/S0921-8777(98)00071-8

J. Callen and J. Klein, Subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus. clinical, serologic, immunogenetic, and therapeutic considerations in seventy-two patients, Arthritis & Rheumatism, vol.34, issue.8, pp.1007-1013, 1988.
DOI : 10.7326/0003-4819-97-5-664

J. Callen, Chronic cutaneous lupus erythematosus. Clinical, laboratory, therapeutic, and prognostic examination of 62 patients, Archives of Dermatology, vol.118, issue.6, pp.412-416, 1982.
DOI : 10.1001/archderm.118.6.412

J. Bouaziz, S. Barete, L. Pelletier, F. Amoura, Z. Piette et al., Cutaneous lesions of the digits in systemic lupus erythematosus: 50 cases, Lupus, vol.455, issue.3, pp.163-167, 2007.
DOI : 10.1007/978-1-4615-4857-7_24

F. Franceschini, P. Calzavara-pinton, and L. Valsecchi, Chilblain Lupus Erythematosus is Associated with Antibodies to SSA/Ro, Adv Exp Med Biol, vol.455, pp.167-171, 1999.
DOI : 10.1007/978-1-4615-4857-7_24

L. Millard and N. Rowell, Chilblain lupus erythematosus (Hutchinson) A CLINICAL AND LABORATORY STUDY OF 17 PATIENTS, British Journal of Dermatology, vol.90, issue.5, pp.497-506, 1978.
DOI : 10.1001/archderm.1963.01590200064012

W. Su, C. Perniciaro, R. Rogers, and J. White, Chilblain lupus erythematosus (lupus pernio): clinical review of the Mayo Clinic experience and proposal of diagnostic criteria, Cutis, vol.54, issue.6, pp.395-399, 1994.

M. Viguier, L. Pinquier, and B. Cavelier-balloy, Clinical and Histopathologic Features and Immunologic Variables in Patients with Severe Chilblains, Medicine, vol.80, issue.3, pp.180-188, 2001.
DOI : 10.1097/00005792-200105000-00004

M. Peters and W. Su, Lupus Erythematosus Panniculitis, Medical Clinics of North America, vol.73, issue.5, pp.1113-1126, 1989.
DOI : 10.1016/S0025-7125(16)30622-8

N. Sánchez, M. Peters, and R. Winkelmann, The histopathology of lupus erythematosus panniculitis, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, vol.5, issue.6, pp.673-680, 1981.
DOI : 10.1016/S0190-9622(81)70129-4

D. Tuffanelli, Lupus Erythematosus Panniculitis (Profundus), Archives of Dermatology, vol.103, issue.3, pp.231-242, 1971.
DOI : 10.1001/archderm.1971.04000150001001

W. Jacyk and K. Bhana, Lupus erythematosus profundus in black South Africans, International Journal of Dermatology, vol.129, issue.6, pp.717-721, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/S0190-9622(99)70348-8

A. Kuhn, D. Richter-hintz, C. Oslislo, T. Ruzicka, M. Megahed et al., Lupus Erythematosus Tumidus, Archives of Dermatology, vol.136, issue.8, pp.1033-1041, 2000.
DOI : 10.1001/archderm.136.8.1033

URL : http://archderm.jamanetwork.com/data/journals/derm/4653/dob9033.pdf

C. Rodriguez-caruncho, I. Bielsa, M. Fernández-figueras, J. Roca, J. Carrascosa et al., Lupus erythematosus tumidus: a clinical and histological study of 25 cases, Lupus, vol.145, issue.7, pp.751-75510, 2015.
DOI : 10.1001/archdermatol.2008.582

E. Díaz-jouanen, R. Dehoratius, D. Alarcón-segovia, and R. Messner, Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Presenting as Panniculitis (Lupus Profundus), Annals of Internal Medicine, vol.82, issue.3, pp.376-379, 1975.
DOI : 10.7326/0003-4819-82-3-376

N. Sánchez, M. Peters, and R. Winkelmann, The histopathology of lupus erythematosus panniculitis, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, vol.5, issue.6, pp.673-680, 1981.
DOI : 10.1016/S0190-9622(81)70129-4

T. Watanabe and T. Tsuchida, Lupus erythematosus profundus: a cutaneous marker for a distinct clinical subset?, British Journal of Dermatology, vol.43, issue.1, pp.123-125, 1996.
DOI : 10.1001/archderm.111.11.1448

P. Ng, S. Tan, and T. Tan, Lupus erythematosus panniculitis: a clinicopathologic study, International Journal of Dermatology, vol.35, issue.8, pp.488-490, 2002.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-2133.1996.d01-735.x

D. Wallace, The history of antimalarials, Lupus, vol.260, issue.1_suppl, pp.2-3, 1996.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJM195901082600203

F. Page, TREATMENT OF LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS WITH MEPACRINE, The Lancet, vol.258, issue.6687, pp.755-758, 1951.
DOI : 10.1016/S0140-6736(51)91643-1

L. Goldman, D. Cole, and R. Preston, CHLOROQUINE DIPHOSPHATE IN TREATMENT OF DISCOID LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS, Journal of the American Medical Association, vol.152, issue.15, pp.1428-1429, 1953.
DOI : 10.1001/jama.1953.63690150002009a

L. Hm and F. Gm, Plaquenil in the treatment of discoid lupus erythematosus; a preliminary report, AMA Arch Dermatol, vol.73, issue.6, pp.576-581, 1956.

J. Christiansen, TREATMENT OF LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS WITH CHLOROQUINE.., British Journal of Dermatology, vol.6, issue.5, pp.157-168, 1957.
DOI : 10.1001/archderm.1954.01540190063004

D. Wallace, V. Gudsoorkar, M. Weisman, and S. Venuturupalli, New insights into mechanisms of therapeutic effects of antimalarial agents in SLE, Nature Reviews Rheumatology, vol.187, issue.9, pp.522-533, 2012.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.1100450

S. Tett, Clinical Pharmacokinetics of Slow-Acting Antirheumatic Drugs, Clinical Pharmacokinetics, vol.25, issue.5, pp.392-407, 1993.
DOI : 10.2165/00003088-199325050-00005

S. Tett, D. Cutler, R. Day, and K. Brown, A dose-ranging study of the pharmacokinetics of hydroxy-chloroquine following intravenous administration to healthy volunteers., British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, vol.6, issue.3, pp.303-313, 1988.
DOI : 10.1007/BF01117450

S. Tett, R. Day, and D. Cutler, Hydroxychloroquine relative bioavailability: within subject reproducibility, British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, vol.21, issue.3, pp.244-246, 1996.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-2125.1996.tb00190.x

E. Mcchesney, Animal toxicity and pharmacokinetics of hydroxychloroquine sulfate, The American Journal of Medicine, vol.75, issue.1, pp.11-18, 1983.
DOI : 10.1016/0002-9343(83)91265-2

B. Shaffer, M. Cahn, and E. Levy, Absorption of Antimalarial Drugs in Human Skin, Journal of Investigative Dermatology, vol.30, issue.6, pp.341-345, 1958.
DOI : 10.1038/jid.1958.63

G. Alarcón, G. Mcgwin, and A. Bertoli, Effect of hydroxychloroquine on the survival of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: data from LUMINA, a multiethnic US cohort (LUMINA L), Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, vol.66, issue.9, pp.1168-1172, 2007.
DOI : 10.1136/ard.2006.068676

P. Akhavan, J. Su, W. Lou, D. Gladman, M. Urowitz et al., The Early Protective Effect of Hydroxychloroquine on the Risk of Cumulative Damage in Patients with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, The Journal of Rheumatology, vol.40, issue.6, pp.831-841, 2013.
DOI : 10.3899/jrheum.120572

M. Lamphier, W. Zheng, and E. Latz, Novel Small Molecule Inhibitors of TLR7 and TLR9: Mechanism of Action and Efficacy In Vivo, Molecular Pharmacology, vol.85, issue.3, pp.429-440, 2014.
DOI : 10.1124/mol.113.089821

A. Kuznik, M. Bencina, U. Svajger, M. Jeras, B. Rozman et al., Mechanism of Endosomal TLR Inhibition by Antimalarial Drugs and Imidazoquinolines, The Journal of Immunology, vol.186, issue.8, pp.4794-4804, 1950.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.1000702

A. Wozniacka, A. Lesiak, J. Boncela, K. Smolarczyk, D. Mccauliffe et al., The influence of antimalarial treatment on IL-1beta, IL-6 and TNF-alpha mRNA expression on UVB-irradiated skin in systemic lupus erythematosus, Br J Dermatol, vol.159, issue.5, pp.1124-1130, 2008.

A. Lesiak, J. Narbutt, and J. Kobos, Systematic administration of chloroquine in discoid lupus erythematosus reduces skin lesions via inhibition of angiogenesis, Clinical and Experimental Dermatology, vol.9, issue.5, 2009.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-2230.2008.03006.x

C. Smith, A. Vivekanandan-giri, and C. Tang, Neutrophil Extracellular Trap-Derived Enzymes Oxidize High-Density Lipoprotein: An Additional Proatherogenic Mechanism in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, Arthritis & Rheumatology, vol.186, issue.Suppl 1, pp.2532-2544, 2014.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.1000702

URL : http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/art.38703/pdf

A. Cepika, S. Jure?a, D. , M. Vergles, and J. , Decrease in circulating DNA, IL-10 and BAFF levels in newly-diagnosed SLE patients after corticosteroid and chloroquine treatment, Cellular Immunology, vol.276, issue.1-2, pp.196-203, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/j.cellimm.2012.05.009

J. Silva, . Da, H. Mariz, L. Rocha, and . Da, Hydroxychloroquine decreases Th17-related cytokines in systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis patients, Clinics, vol.68, issue.6, pp.766-771, 2013.
DOI : 10.6061/clinics/2013(06)07

L. Zhao, H. Ma, Z. Jiang, Y. Jiang, and N. Ma, T cells in systemic lupus erythematosus patients, Clinical & Experimental Immunology, vol.131, issue.1, pp.212-218, 2014.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jaci.2013.02.026

L. Sailler, B. Puissant, and P. Méliani, Blood Concentrations of Hydroxychloroquine and Its Desethyl Derivative Correlate Negatively with the Percentage of CD45RO+ Cells among CD4+ Lymphocytes in Hydroxychloroquine-Treated Lupus Patients, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol.30, issue.1, pp.41-50, 2007.
DOI : 10.1002/jcp.1041220312

T. Nguyen, J. Capra, and R. Sontheimer, 4-Aminoquinoline antimalarials enhance UV-B induced c???jun transcriptional activation, Lupus, vol.9, issue.3, pp.148-153, 1998.
DOI : 10.1038/jid.1993.25

G. Sjölin-forsberg, B. Berne, T. Eggelte, and A. Karlsson-parra, In situ localization of chloroquine and immunohistological studies in UVB-irradiated skin of photosensitive patients, Acta Derm Venereol, vol.75, issue.3, pp.228-231, 1995.

A. Wozniacka, A. Carter, and D. Mccauliffe, Antimalarials in cutaneous lupus erythematosus: mechanisms of therapeutic benefit, Lupus, vol.30, issue.1, pp.71-81, 2002.
DOI : 10.1002/art.1780301219

A. Wozniacka, A. Lesiak, J. Narbutt, J. Kobos, S. Pavel et al., Chloroquine treatment reduces the number of cutaneous HLA-DR+ and CD1a+ cells in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus, Lupus, vol.140, issue.2, pp.89-94, 2007.
DOI : 10.1001/archderm.140.3.295

R. Fox, Mechanism of action of hydroxychloroquine as an antirheumatic drug, Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism, vol.23, issue.2, pp.82-91, 1993.
DOI : 10.1016/S0049-0172(10)80012-5

M. Humbert, P. Bertolino, and F. Forquet, Major histocompatibility complex class II-restricted presentation of secreted and endoplasmic reticulum resident antigens requires the invariant chains and is sensitive to lysosomotropic agents, European Journal of Immunology, vol.174, issue.12, pp.3167-3172, 1993.
DOI : 10.1128/MCB.5.12.3610

J. Bondeson and R. Sundler, Antimalarial Drugs Inhibit Phospholipase A2 Activation and Induction of Interleukin l?? and Tumor Necrosis Factor ?? in Macrophages: Implications for Their Mode of Action in Rheumatoid Arthritis, General Pharmacology: The Vascular System, vol.30, issue.3, pp.357-366, 1998.
DOI : 10.1016/S0306-3623(97)00269-3

K. Tahir, Influence of niridazole and chloroquine on arterial and myometrial prostacyclin synthesis, British Journal of Pharmacology, vol.19, issue.3, pp.567-572, 1987.
DOI : 10.1016/0090-6980(80)90151-3

A. Segal-eiras, G. Segura, J. Babini, A. Arturi, J. Fraguela et al., Effect of antimalarial treatment on circulating immune complexes in rheumatoid arthritis, J Rheumatol, vol.12, issue.1, pp.87-89, 1985.

K. Sacre, L. Criswell, and J. Mccune, Hydroxychloroquine is associated with impaired interferon-alpha and tumor necrosis factor-alpha production by plasmacytoid dendritic cells in systemic lupus erythematosus, Arthritis Research & Therapy, vol.14, issue.3, pp.10-1186, 2012.
DOI : 10.1002/art.1780350606

L. Zhao, Y. Li, and M. Smith, Expressions of BAFF/BAFF receptors and their correlation with disease activity in Chinese SLE patients, Lupus, vol.175, issue.13, pp.1534-1549, 2010.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.175.5.2814

N. Costedoat-chalumeau, L. Guern, V. Piette, and J. , Determining Adherence to Therapeutic Regimens in Patients With Chronic Illness: Comment on the Article by Waimann et al, Arthritis & Rheumatology, vol.39, issue.3, 2014.
DOI : 10.3899/jrheum.110771

N. Costedoat-chalumeau, Z. Amoura, and J. Hulot, Low blood concentration of hydroxychloroquine is a marker for and predictor of disease exacerbations in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus, Arthritis & Rheumatism, vol.56, issue.10, pp.3284-3290, 2006.
DOI : 10.1002/art.22156

C. Francès, A. Cosnes, and P. Duhaut, Low blood concentration of hydroxychloroquine in patients with refractory cutaneous lupus erythematosus: a French multicenter prospective study, Arch Dermatol, vol.148, issue.4, pp.479-484, 2012.

B. Townend, J. Sturm, and S. Whyte, Quinine associated blindness, Aust Fam Physician, vol.33, issue.8, pp.627-628, 2004.

N. Costedoat-chalumeau, B. Dunogué, and G. Leroux, A Critical Review of the Effects of Hydroxychloroquine and Chloroquine on the Eye, Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology, vol.8, issue.10, pp.317-326, 2015.
DOI : 10.1186/ar1957

G. Ruiz-irastorza, M. Ramos-casals, P. Brito-zeron, and M. Khamashta, Clinical efficacy and side effects of antimalarials in systemic lupus erythematosus: a systematic review, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, vol.69, issue.01
DOI : 10.1136/ard.2008.101766

M. Raines, S. Bhargava, and E. Rosen, The blood-retinal barrier in chloroquine retinopathy, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, vol.30, issue.8, pp.1726-1731, 1989.

I. Mavrikakis, P. Sfikakis, and E. Mavrikakis, The incidence of irreversible retinal toxicity in patients treated with hydroxychloroquine, Ophthalmology, vol.110, issue.7, pp.1321-132610, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S0161-6420(03)00409-3

F. Wolfe and M. Marmor, Rates and predictors of hydroxychloroquine retinal toxicity in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus, Arthritis Care & Research, vol.43, issue.6, pp.775-784, 2010.
DOI : 10.1093/rheumatology/keh041

R. Melles and M. Marmor, The Risk of Toxic Retinopathy in Patients on Long-term Hydroxychloroquine Therapy, JAMA Ophthalmology, vol.132, issue.12, 2014.
DOI : 10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2014.3459

M. Marmor, R. Carr, M. Easterbrook, A. Farjo, and W. Mieler, Recommendations on screening for chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine retinopathy, Ophthalmology, vol.109, issue.7, pp.1377-1382, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0161-6420(02)01168-5

M. Marmor, U. Kellner, T. Lai, J. Lyons, and W. Mieler, Revised Recommendations on Screening for Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine Retinopathy, Ophthalmology, vol.118, issue.2, pp.415-422, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.ophtha.2010.11.017

M. Easterbrook, Long-term course of antimalarial maculopathy after cessation of treatment, Can J Ophthalmol J Can Ophtalmol, vol.27, issue.5, pp.237-239, 1992.

M. Marmor and J. Hu, Effect of Disease Stage on Progression of Hydroxychloroquine Retinopathy, JAMA Ophthalmology, vol.132, issue.9, pp.1105-1112, 2014.
DOI : 10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2014.1099

M. Jallouli, C. Francès, and J. Piette, Hydroxychloroquine-Induced Pigmentation in Patients With Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, JAMA Dermatology, vol.149, issue.8, pp.935-940, 2013.
DOI : 10.1001/jamadermatol.2013.709

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00934853

J. Jiménez-alonso, J. Tercedor, L. Jáimez, and E. García-lora, Antimalarial drug-induced aquagenic-type pruritus in patients with lupus, 4<744::AID-ART26>3.0.CO, pp.744-7452, 1998.

N. Costedoat-chalumeau, J. Hulot, and Z. Amoura, Heart conduction disorders related to antimalarials toxicity: an analysis of electrocardiograms in 85 patients treated with hydroxychloroquine for connective tissue diseases, Rheumatology, vol.46, issue.5, pp.808-810, 2007.
DOI : 10.1093/rheumatology/kel402

E. Tönnesmann, R. Kandolf, and T. Lewalter, Chloroquine cardiomyopathy ??? a review of the literature, Immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology, vol.75, issue.3, pp.434-442, 2013.
DOI : 10.1016/0002-9343(83)91269-X

N. Costedoat-chalumeau, B. Dunogué, N. Morel, L. Guern, V. Guettrot-imbert et al., Hydroxychloroquine: a multifaceted treatment in lupus. Presse Médicale Paris Fr 1983, Pt, vol.43, issue.2, pp.167-180, 2014.

M. Stein, M. Bell, and L. Ang, Hydroxychloroquine neuromyotoxicity, J Rheumatol, vol.27, issue.12, pp.2927-2931, 2000.

D. Stroup, J. Berlin, and S. Morton, Meta-analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiology<SUBTITLE>A Proposal for Reporting</SUBTITLE>, JAMA, vol.283, issue.15, pp.2008-2012, 2000.
DOI : 10.1001/jama.283.15.2008

A. Stang, Critical evaluation of the Newcastle-Ottawa scale for the assessment of the quality of nonrandomized studies in meta-analyses, European Journal of Epidemiology, vol.114, issue.1, pp.603-605, 2010.
DOI : 10.1007/s10654-010-9491-z

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00610427

A. Kuhn, J. Sigges, and C. Biazar, Influence of smoking on disease severity and antimalarial therapy in cutaneous lupus erythematosus: analysis of 1002 patients from the EUSCLE database, British Journal of Dermatology, vol.51, issue.3, 2014.
DOI : 10.1007/s001050050017

F. Chasset, C. Francès, S. Barete, Z. Amoura, and L. Arnaud, Influence of smoking on the efficacy of antimalarials in cutaneous lupus: A meta-analysis of the literature, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, vol.72, issue.4, pp.634-639, 2015.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jaad.2014.12.025

J. Albrecht, L. Taylor, and J. Berlin, The CLASI (Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus Disease Area and Severity Index): An Outcome Instrument for Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus, Journal of Investigative Dermatology, vol.125, issue.5, pp.889-894, 2005.
DOI : 10.1111/j.0022-202X.2005.23889.x

R. Klein, S. Moghadam-kia, and J. Lomonico, Development of the CLASI as a Tool to Measure Disease Severity and Responsiveness to Therapy in Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus, Archives of Dermatology, vol.147, issue.2, pp.203-208, 2011.
DOI : 10.1001/archdermatol.2010.435

J. Barendregt, S. Doi, Y. Lee, R. Norman, and T. Vos, Meta-analysis of prevalence, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, vol.246, issue.11, pp.974-978, 2013.
DOI : 10.1007/s004150050329

R. Dersimonian and N. Laird, Meta-analysis in clinical trials, Controlled Clinical Trials, vol.7, issue.3, pp.177-188, 1986.
DOI : 10.1016/0197-2456(86)90046-2

C. Spann, J. Callen, J. Klein, and K. Kulick, Clinical, serologic and immunogenetic studies in patients with chronic cutaneous (discoid) lupus erythematosus who have verrucous and/or hypertrophic skin lesions, J Rheumatol, vol.15, issue.2, pp.256-261, 1988.

T. Ruzicka, C. Sommerburg, G. Goerz, P. Kind, and H. Mensing, Treatment of cutaneous lupus erythematosus with acitretin and hydroxychloroquine, British Journal of Dermatology, vol.82, issue.5, pp.513-518, 1992.
DOI : 10.1001/archderm.126.4.482

L. Bozec, P. , L. Guyadec, T. Crickx, B. Grossin et al., Chronic lupus erythematosus in lupus disease. Retrospective study of 136 patients]. Presse Médicale Paris Fr, pp.1598-1602, 1983.

P. Rahman, D. Gladman, and M. Urowitz, Smoking interferes with efficacy of antimalarial therapy in cutaneous lupus, J Rheumatol, vol.25, issue.9, pp.1716-1719, 1998.

M. Jewell and D. Mccauliffe, Patients with cutaneous lupus erythematosus who smoke are less responsive to antimalarial treatment, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, vol.42, issue.6, pp.983-987, 2000.
DOI : 10.1067/mjd.2000.103635

J. Versapuech, M. Beylot-barry, M. Doutre, and C. Beylot, [Subacute cutaneous lupus. Evolutive and therapeutic features of a series of 24 cases]. Presse Médicale Paris Fr, pp.1596-1599, 1983.

D. Lardet, S. Martin, F. Truchetet, J. Cuny, J. Virion et al., Effect of smoking on the effectiveness of antimalarial drugs for cutaneous lesions of patients with lupus: assessment in a prospective study]. Rev Médecine Interne Fondée Par Société Natl Francaise Médecine Interne, pp.786-791, 2004.

C. Chieregato, A. Barba, A. Zini, A. Peroni, M. Magnanini et al., Discoid lupus erythematosus: clinical and pathological study of 24 patients, Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology, vol.35, issue.1, p.113, 2004.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1468-3083.2004.00849.x

C. Choonhakarn, A. Poonsriaram, and J. Chaivoramukul, Lupus erythematosus tumidus, International Journal of Dermatology, vol.20, issue.11, pp.815-818, 2004.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1346-8138.1993.tb01335.x

E. Bezerra, M. Vilar, . Da-trindade, P. Neto, and E. Sato, Double-blind, randomized, controlled clinical trial of clofazimine compared with chloroquine in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus, Arthritis & Rheumatism, vol.5, issue.10, pp.3073-3078, 2005.
DOI : 10.1002/art.21358

A. Kreuter, R. Gaifullina, C. Tigges, J. Kirschke, P. Altmeyer et al., Lupus Erythematosus Tumidus, Archives of Dermatology, vol.145, issue.3, pp.244-248, 2009.
DOI : 10.1001/archdermatol.2008.592

E. Cozzani, K. Christana, F. Rongioletti, A. Rebora, and A. Parodi, Lupus erythematosus tumidus: clinical, histopathological and serological aspects and therapy response of 21 patients, Eur J Dermatol EJD, vol.20, issue.6, pp.797-801, 2010.

A. Mahfoudh, A. Khaled, and O. Chtourou, Chronic lupus erythematosus: 104 Tunisian cases]. Tunis Médicale, pp.742-745, 2010.

S. Wahie, A. Daly, and H. Cordell, Clinical and Pharmacogenetic Influences on Response to Hydroxychloroquine in Discoid Lupus Erythematosus: A Retrospective Cohort Study, Journal of Investigative Dermatology, vol.131, issue.10, pp.1981-1986, 2011.
DOI : 10.1038/jid.2011.167

A. Chang, E. Piette, K. Foering, T. Tenhave, J. Okawa et al., Response to Antimalarial Agents in Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus, Archives of Dermatology, vol.147, issue.11, pp.1261-1267, 2011.
DOI : 10.1001/archdermatol.2011.191

E. Piette, K. Foering, and A. Chang, Impact of Smoking in Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus, Archives of Dermatology, vol.148, issue.3, pp.317-322, 2012.
DOI : 10.1001/archdermatol.2011.342

T. Ikeda, N. Kanazawa, and F. Furukawa, Hydroxychloroquine administration for Japanese lupus erythematosus in Wakayama: A pilot study, The Journal of Dermatology, vol.69, issue.2 Suppl 1, pp.531-535, 2012.
DOI : 10.1136/ard.2008.101766

M. Islam, M. Hossain, S. Haq, M. Alam, T. Klooster et al., Efficacy and safety of methotrexate in articular and cutaneous manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus, International Journal of Rheumatic Diseases, vol.54, issue.4A, pp.62-68, 2012.
DOI : 10.2105/AJPH.54.1.33

N. Yokogawa, A. Tanikawa, and M. Amagai, Response to hydroxychloroquine in Japanese patients with lupus-related skin disease using the cutaneous lupus erythematosus disease area and severity index (CLASI), Modern Rheumatology, vol.118, issue.2, pp.318-32210, 2013.
DOI : 10.1002/acr.20133

Y. Momose, S. Arai, H. Eto, M. Kishimoto, and M. Okada, Experience with the use of hydroxychloroquine for the treatment of lupus erythematosus, The Journal of Dermatology, vol.34, issue.2, pp.94-97, 2013.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-2230.2008.03006.x

M. Oremus, C. Wolfson, A. Perrault, L. Demers, F. Momoli et al., Interrater Reliability of the Modified Jadad Quality Scale for Systematic Reviews of Alzheimer???s Disease Drug Trials, Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, vol.12, issue.3, pp.232-23651263, 2001.
DOI : 10.1159/000051263

R. Feldmann, D. Salomon, and J. Saurat, The Association of the Two Antimalarials Chloroquine and Quinacrine for Treatment-Resistant Chronic and Subacute Cutaneous Lupus erythematosus, Dermatology, vol.189, issue.4, pp.425-427, 1994.
DOI : 10.1159/000246899

D. Lipsker, J. Piette, P. Cacoub, P. Godeau, and C. Frances, Chloroquine-Quinacrine Association in Resistant Cutaneous Lupus, Dermatology, vol.190, issue.3, pp.257-258, 1995.
DOI : 10.1159/000246710

I. Cavazzana, R. Sala, and C. Bazzani, Treatment of lupus skin involvement with quinacrine and hydroxychloroquine, Lupus, vol.44, issue.8, pp.735-739, 2009.
DOI : 10.1136/ard.44.12.861

G. Leroux, N. Costedoat-chalumeau, and J. Hulot, Relationship between blood hydroxychloroquine and desethylchloroquine concentrations and cigarette smoking in treated patients with connective tissue diseases, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, vol.66, issue.11, pp.1547-1548, 2007.
DOI : 10.1136/ard.2007.072587

URL : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2111622

S. Kwatra, Toll-like receptor-9 signaling and decreased efficacy of antimalarial drugs in smokers with cutaneous lupus erythematosus, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, vol.73, issue.2, 2015.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jaad.2015.04.068

M. Julian, G. Shao, and L. Schlesinger, Nicotine Treatment Improves Toll-Like Receptor 2 and Toll-Like Receptor 9 Responsiveness in Active Pulmonary Sarcoidosis, Chest, vol.143, issue.2, pp.461-4701012, 1378.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.12-0383

F. Chasset, C. Francès, and L. Arnaud, Smoking enhances Toll-like receptor-9 responsiveness and type I interferon production in plasmacytoid dendritic cells in patients with cutaneous lupus erythematosus, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, vol.73, issue.2, 2015.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jaad.2015.05.023

J. Cortés-hernández, M. Torres-salido, J. Castro-marrero, M. Vilardell-tarres, and J. Ordi-ros, Thalidomide in the treatment of refractory cutaneous lupus erythematosus: prognostic factors of clinical outcome, British Journal of Dermatology, vol.11, issue.3, pp.616-623, 2012.
DOI : 10.1191/0961203302lu180ed

C. Briani, G. Zara, and R. Rondinone, Positive and negative effects of thalidomide on refractory cutaneous lupus erythematosus, Autoimmunity, vol.14, issue.7, pp.549-555, 2005.
DOI : 10.1191/0961203302lu180ed

V. Chaudhry, D. Cornblath, A. Corse, M. Freimer, E. Simmons-o-'brien et al., Thalidomide-induced neuropathy, Neurology, vol.59, issue.12, pp.1872-1875, 2002.
DOI : 10.1212/01.WNL.0000037480.59194.85

F. Fennira, F. Chasset, M. Soubrier, N. Cordel, A. Petit et al., Lenalidomide for refractory chronic and subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus: 16 patients, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, vol.74, issue.6, 2016.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jaad.2016.01.054

T. Munster, J. Gibbs, and D. Shen, Hydroxychloroquine concentration-response relationships in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, Arthritis & Rheumatism, vol.8, issue.6, pp.1460-1469, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/0049-0172(78)90033-1

K. Rainsford, A. Parke, M. Clifford-rashotte, and W. Kean, Therapy and pharmacological properties of hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine in treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis and related diseases, Inflammopharmacology, vol.38, issue.Suppl 1, pp.231-269, 2015.
DOI : 10.1007/s10753-014-9985-z

A. Kuhn, A. Meuth, and D. Bein, Revised Cutaneous Lupus erythematosus Disease Area and Severity Index (RCLASI): a modified outcome instrument for cutaneous lupus erythematosus, British Journal of Dermatology, vol.163, issue.1, 2010.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2010.09799.x

N. Costedoat-chalumeau, Z. Amoura, and J. Hulot, Very low blood hydroxychloroquine concentration as an objective marker of poor adherence to treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, vol.66, issue.6, pp.821-824, 2007.
DOI : 10.1136/ard.2006.067835

M. Petri, A. Orbai, and G. Alarcón, Derivation and validation of the Systemic Lupus International Collaborating Clinics classification criteria for systemic lupus erythematosus, Arthritis & Rheumatism, vol.65, issue.Suppl, pp.2677-2686, 2012.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1523-1755.2004.00443.x

S. Tett, R. Day, and D. Cutler, Concentration-effect relationship of hydroxychloroquine in rheumatoid arthritis--a cross sectional study, J Rheumatol, vol.20, issue.11, pp.1874-1879, 1993.

M. Tsang-a-sjoe, I. Bultink, and A. Voskuyl, Long-term evaluation of antimalarials in a Dutch SLE cohort: intolerance and other reasons for non-use, Clin Exp Rheumatol, vol.32, issue.1, pp.95-100, 2014.

J. Lyons and M. Severns, Using multifocal ERG ring ratios to detect and follow Plaquenil retinal toxicity: a review, Documenta Ophthalmologica, vol.19, issue.1, pp.29-36, 2009.
DOI : 10.1001/archopht.117.9.1262

I. Ingster-moati, M. Crochet, and E. Manchon, Surveillance ophtalmologique des patients sous APS au long cours : analyse d???une population de 925 patients, Journal Fran??ais d'Ophtalmologie, vol.27, issue.4, pp.367-373, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/S0181-5512(04)96142-6

N. Costedoat-chalumeau, J. Pouchot, and G. Guettrot-imbert, Adherence to treatment in systemic lupus erythematosus patients, Best Practice & Research Clinical Rheumatology, vol.27, issue.3, 2013.
DOI : 10.1016/j.berh.2013.07.001

L. Panniculitis and . Erythematosus, OR ("acute cutaneous lupus erythematosus"[All Fields]) OR ("chronic cutaneous lupus erythematosus"[All Fields]) OR ("cutaneous lupus erythematosus"[All Fields]) OR ("discoid cutaneous lupus erythematosus"[All Fields]) OR ("intermittent cutaneous lupus erythematosus"[All Fields]) OR ("subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus "[All Fields]) OR ("Lupus Erythematosus panniculitis"[All Fields]) OR ("Lupus erythematosus profundus"[All Fields]) OR ("Lupus erythematosus tumidus"[All Fields]) OR ("Chilblain lupus erythematosus"[All Fields]) OR ("acute lupus"[All Fields]) OR ("discoid lupus"[All Fields]) OR ("chronic lupus"[All Fields]) OR "subacute lupus"[All Fields]) OR ("cutaneous lupus AND (("Treatment Outcome, Therapeutic Uses"[Mesh] OR "therapeutic efficacy"[All Fields] OR "efficacy" [All Fields]))) AND (("Hydroxychloroquine"[Mesh]) OR ("Chloroquine"[Mesh]) OR ("antimalarials