M. S. Gottlieb, « Pneumocystis Carinii Pneumonia and Mucosal Candidiasis in Previously Healthy Homosexual Men, Evidence of a New Acquired Cellular Immunodeficiency, vol.128, p.444, 1982.

F. Barre-sinoussi, « Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), Science, vol.220, pp.868-871, 1983.

J. M. Baeten, Use of a Vaginal Ring Containing Dapivirine for HIV-1 Prevention in Women, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.375, pp.2121-2132, 2016.

A. , « Safety and Efficacy of a Dapivirine Vaginal Ring for HIV Prevention in Women, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.375, pp.2133-2143, 2016.

J. Molina, On-Demand Preexposure Prophylaxis in Men at High Risk for HIV-1 Infection, vol.373, pp.2237-2246
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01429281

F. , Isolation of a New Human Retrovirus from West African Patients with AIDS, vol.233, pp.343-346, 1986.

A. Ayouba, « Evidence for continuing cross-species transmission of SIVsmm to humans: characterization of a new HIV-2 lineage in rural Côte d'Ivoire, AIDS, vol.27, pp.2488-2491, 2013.

L. Etienne, M. Peeters, . Origine, ». Vih, and V. , , vol.14, pp.171-184, 2010.

J. Plantier, A new human immunodeficiency virus derived from gorillas, vol.15, pp.871-872, 2009.

R. S. Harris and M. T. Liddament, Retroviral restriction by APOBEC proteins, vol.4, pp.868-877, 2004.

T. Hatziioannou and P. D. Bieniasz, Antiretroviral Restriction Factors, vol.1, pp.526-532, 2011.

N. Laguette, « SAMHD1 is the dendritic-and myeloid-cell-specific HIV-1 restriction factor counteracted by Vpx, Nature, vol.474, pp.654-657, 2011.

N. Aschman, W. Weissenhorn, P. Renesto, and . La-tétherine, , vol.16, p.11, 2019.

H. Mitsuya, « 3'-Azido-3'-deoxythymidine (BW A509U): an antiviral agent that inhibits the infectivity and cytopathic effect of human T-lymphotropic virus type III/lymphadenopathy-associated virus in vitro, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.82, pp.7096-7100, 1985.

M. A. , « The efficacy of azidothymidine (AZT) in the treatment of patients with AIDS and AIDS-related complex. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, N. Engl. J. Med, vol.317, issue.4, pp.185-191, 1987.

N. Chomont, « HIV reservoir size and persistence are driven by T cell survival and homeostatic proliferation », Nature Medicine, vol.15, issue.8, pp.893-900, 2009.

C. Bacchus, Single HIV-1 Cluster and a Skewed Immune Homeostasis Drive the Early Spread of HIV among Resting CD4+ Cell Subsets within One Month PostInfection », PLoS ONE, vol.8, issue.5, p.64219, 2013.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01535801

J. C. Valle-casuso, « Cellular Metabolism Is a Major Determinant of HIV-1

, Reservoir Seeding in CD4+ T Cells and Offers an Opportunity to Tackle Infection », Cell Metabolism, déc, 2018.

M. D. George and D. M. Asmuth, « Mucosal immunity in HIV infection: what can be done to restore gastrointestinal-associated lymphoid tissue function?, Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases, vol.27, issue.3, pp.275-281, 2014.

S. Yukl and J. K. Wong, Blood and Guts and HIV: Preferential HIV Persistence in GI Mucosa, The Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol.197, issue.5, pp.640-642, 2008.

J. J. Mattapallil, D. C. Douek, B. Hill, Y. Nishimura, M. Martin et al., Massive infection and loss of memory CD4+ T cells in multiple tissues during acute SIV infection, vol.434, p.5, 2005.

J. M. Brenchley, « CD4 + T Cell Depletion during all Stages of HIV Disease Occurs Predominantly in the Gastrointestinal Tract, The Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol.200, issue.6, pp.749-759, 2004.

M. Younas, C. Psomas, J. Reynes, and P. Corbeau, « Immune activation in the course of HIV-1 infection: Causes, phenotypes and persistence under therapy, HIV Medicine, vol.17, issue.2, pp.89-105, 2016.

P. J. Santangelo, Whole-body immunoPET reveals active SIV dynamics in viremic and antiretroviral therapy-treated macaques, vol.12, pp.427-432, 2015.

M. Perreau, « Follicular helper T cells serve as the major CD4 T cell compartment for HIV-1 infection, replication, and production, J Exp Med, vol.210, issue.1, pp.143-156, 2013.

K. Kaczmarek, A. Morales, A. J. Henderson, and «. , Cell Transcription Factors and Their Impact on HIV Expression », vol.4, pp.41-47, 2013.

O. Bourry, « Effect of a short-term HAART on SIV load in macaque tissues is dependent on time of initiation and antiviral diffusion, Retrovirology, vol.7, p.78, 2010.

K. A. Thompson, « Astrocyte specific viral strains in HIV dementia, Annals of Neurology, vol.56, issue.6, pp.873-877, 2004.

J. Ghosn, « Evidence of genotypic resistance diversity of archived and circulating viral strains in blood and semen of pre-treated HIV-infected men, AIDS, vol.18, issue.3, pp.447-457, 2004.

S. R. Lewin and C. Rouzioux, « HIV cure and eradication: how will we get from the laboratory to effective clinical trials?, AIDS, vol.25, issue.7, pp.885-897, 2011.

C. Rouzioux, « Early Levels of HIV-1 DNA in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells Are Predictive of Disease Progression Independently of HIV-1 RNA Levels and CD4+ T Cell Counts, J Infect Dis, vol.192, issue.1, pp.46-55, 2005.

K. K. Koelsch, « Dynamics of Total, Linear Nonintegrated, and Integrated HIV-1 DNA In Vivo and In Vitro, J Infect Dis, vol.197, issue.3, pp.411-419, 2008.

J. B. Whitney, « Rapid seeding of the viral reservoir prior to SIV viraemia in rhesus monkeys, Nature, vol.512, pp.74-77, 2014.

Y. Cao, L. Qin, L. Zhang, J. Safrit, and D. D. Ho, Virologic and Immunologic Characterization of Long-Term Survivors of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1

, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.332, pp.201-208, 1995.

O. Lambotte, « HIV Controllers: A Homogeneous Group of HIV-1--Infected Patients with Spontaneous Control of Viral Replication », Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol.41, issue.7, pp.1053-1056, 2005.

A. Lamine, Replication-competent HIV strains infect HIV controllers despite undetectable viremia (ANRS EP36 study) »:, AIDS, vol.21, pp.1043-1045, 2007.

, The International HIV Controllers Study, « The Major Genetic Determinants of HIV-1

, Control Affect HLA Class I Peptide Presentation, Science, vol.330, pp.1551-1557

A. Sáez-cirión, Restriction of HIV-1 replication in macrophages and CD4+ T cells from HIV controllers », Blood, vol.118, pp.955-964, 2011.

A. Sáez-cirión, G. Pancino, M. Sinet, A. Venet, and O. Lambotte, « HIV controllers: how do they tame the virus?, Trends in Immunology, vol.28, pp.532-540, 2007.

A. Sáez-cirión, Heterogeneity in HIV Suppression by CD8 T Cells from HIV Controllers: Association with Gag-Specific CD8 T Cell Responses, vol.182, pp.7828-7837, 2009.

S. J. Potter, « Preserved Central Memory and Activated Effector Memory CD4+ TCell Subsets in Human Immunodeficiency Virus Controllers: an ANRS EP36 Study, J Virol, vol.81, pp.13904-13915, 2007.

D. Benati, « Public T cell receptors confer high-avidity CD4 responses to HIV controllers, J Clin Invest, vol.126, issue.6, pp.2093-2108

C. M. Buckner, « Maintenance of HIV-Specific Memory B-Cell Responses in Elite Controllers Despite Low Viral Burdens, J Infect Dis, vol.214, issue.3, pp.390-398, 2016.

M. Claireaux, « A High Frequency of HIV-Specific Circulating Follicular Helper T Cells Is Associated with Preserved Memory B Cell Responses in HIV Controllers, vol.9, 2018.

V. Avettand-fenoel, « Dynamics in HIV-DNA levels over time in HIV controllers, J Int AIDS Soc, vol.22, issue.1, 2019.

P. Colson, « HIV infection en route to endogenization: two cases, Clinical Microbiology and Infection, vol.20, pp.1280-1288, 2014.

C. Tamalet, « Reevaluation of possible outcomes of infections with human immunodeficiency virus, Clinical Microbiology and Infection, vol.22, issue.4, pp.299-311, 2016.

A. Sáez-cirión, « Post-Treatment HIV-1 Controllers with a Long-Term Virological Remission after the Interruption of Early Initiated Antiretroviral Therapy ANRS VISCONTI Study, PLoS Pathogens, vol.9, issue.3, p.1003211, 2013.

K. Allers, « Evidence for the cure of HIV infection by CCR5?32/?32 stem cell transplantation, Blood, vol.117, issue.10, pp.2791-2799, 2011.

D. Persaud, « Absence of Detectable HIV-1 Viremia after Treatment Cessation in an Infant, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.369, pp.1828-1835, 2013.

M. Muenchhoff, « Nonprogressing HIV-infected children share fundamental immunological features of nonpathogenic SIV infection, p.15

J. Cohen, « Child fights HIV to a draw, Science, vol.349, pp.355-355, 2015.

J. M. Brenchley, « Microbial translocation is a cause of systemic immune activation in chronic HIV infection », Nature Medicine, vol.12, pp.1365-1371, 2006.

M. S. Freiberg, « HIV Infection and the Risk of Acute Myocardial Infarction, JAMA Intern Med, vol.173, issue.8, pp.614-622, 2013.

N. Borregaard and . Neutrophils, from Marrow to Microbes », Immunity, vol.33, pp.657-670, 2010.

C. Michailidis, G. Giannopoulos, V. Vigklis, K. Armenis, A. Tsakris et al., « Impaired phagocytosis among patients infected by the human immunodeficiency virus: implication for a role of highly active anti-retroviral therapy, Clin Exp Immunol, vol.167, issue.3, pp.499-504, 2012.

L. Campillo-gimenez, « Neutrophils in antiretroviral therapy-controlled HIV demonstrate hyperactivation associated with a specific IL-17/IL-22 environment, J. Allergy Clin. Immunol, vol.134, issue.5, pp.1142-1152, 2014.

F. Grassi, A. Hosmalin, D. Mcilroy, V. Calvez, P. Debré et al., Depletion in blood CD11c-positive dendritic cells from HIV-infected patients, vol.13, p.759, 1999.

K. Mckenna, A. Beignon, and N. Bhardwaj, Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells: Linking Innate and Adaptive Immunity, vol.79, pp.17-27, 2005.

J. Fonteneau, « Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Activates Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells and Concomitantly Induces the Bystander Maturation of Myeloid Dendritic Cells, J Virol, vol.78, issue.10, pp.5223-5232, 2004.

H. Donaghy, « Loss of blood CD11c+ myeloid and CD11c?plasmacytoid dendritic cells in patients with HIV-1 infection correlates with HIV-1 RNA virus load, Blood, vol.98, issue.8, pp.2574-2576, 2001.

J. Huang, « Dendritic Cell Dysfunction During Primary HIV-1 Infection, The Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol.204, issue.10, p.1557, 2011.

J. Herbeuval, « CD4+ T-cell death induced by infectious and noninfectious HIV-1: role of type 1 interferon-dependent, TRAIL/DR5-mediated apoptosis, Blood, vol.106, issue.10, pp.3524-3531, 2005.

N. Thieblemont, L. Weiss, H. M. Sadeghi, C. Estcourt, and N. Haeffner-cavaillon, A cytokine-producing monocyte subset which expands during human immunodeficiency virus infection, European Journal of Immunology, vol.25, pp.3418-3424, 1995.

C. Dutertre, « Pivotal role of M-DC8+ monocytes from viremic HIV-infected patients in TNF? overproduction in response to microbial products, vol.120, pp.2259-2268, 2012.

G. Alter and M. Altfeld, « NK cells in HIV-1 infection: Evidence for their role in the control of HIV-1 infection, J Intern Med, vol.265, issue.1, pp.29-42, 2009.

L. Williams, « The Dominant Source of CD4+ and CD8+ T-Cell Activation in HIV Infection Is Antigenic Stimulation, JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, vol.25, issue.3, p.9, 2000.

J. M. Brenchley, « Expression of CD57 defines replicative senescence and antigeninduced apoptotic death of CD8+ T cells, Blood, vol.101, issue.7, pp.2711-2720, 2003.

T. N. Hoang and M. Paiardini, « Role of cytokine agonists and immune checkpoint inhibitors toward HIV remission, Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS, vol.14, issue.2, pp.121-128, 2019.

A. M. Ortiz, IL-21 and Probiotic Therapy Improve TH17 Frequencies, Microbial Translocation, and Microbiome in ARV-Treated, SIV-Infected Macaques, vol.9, pp.458-467, 2016.

J. Routy, « Assessment of chloroquine as a modulator of immune activation to improve CD4 recovery in immune nonresponding HIV-infected patients receiving antiretroviral therapy, HIV Medicine, vol.16, issue.1, pp.48-56, 2015.

H. Hatano, « Increase in 2-long terminal repeat circles and decrease in D-dimer after raltegravir intensification in patients with treated HIV infection: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial, J. Infect. Dis, vol.208, issue.9, pp.1436-1442, 2013.

P. Cahn, « The Immunomodulatory Nutritional Intervention NR100157 Reduced CD4+ T-Cell Decline and Immune Activation: A 1-Year Multicenter Randomized Controlled Double-Blind Trial in HIV-Infected Persons Not Receiving Antiretroviral Therapy (The BITE Study), Clin Infect Dis, vol.57, issue.1, pp.139-146, 2013.

J. Villar-garcía, Effect of Probiotics (Saccharomyces boulardii) on Microbial Translocation and Inflammation in HIV-Treated Patients: A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial, vol.68, p.256, 2015.

M. R. Young, M. Newby, and H. T. Wepsic, Hematopoiesis and Suppressor Bone Marrow Cells in Mice Bearing Large Metastatic Lewis Lung Carcinoma Tumors, p.7

D. I. Gabrilovich and S. Nagaraj, « Myeloid-derived suppressor cells as regulators of the immune system, Nat. Rev. Immunol, vol.9, issue.3, pp.162-174, 2009.

F. Veglia, M. Perego, and D. Gabrilovich, « Myeloid-derived suppressor cells coming of age », Nature Immunology, vol.19, issue.2, pp.108-119, 2018.

J. Youn, S. Nagaraj, M. Collazo, and D. I. Gabrilovich, « Subsets of Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells in Tumor Bearing Mice, J Immunol, vol.181, issue.8, pp.5791-5802, 2008.

M. Otsuji, Y. Kimura, T. Aoe, Y. Okamoto, and T. Saito, « Oxidative stress by tumorderived macrophages suppresses the expression of CD3 ? chain of T-cell receptor complex and antigen-specific T-cell responses, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, vol.93, issue.23, pp.13119-13124, 1996.

C. Goh, S. Narayanan, and Y. S. Hahn, « Myeloid derived suppressor cells: The Dark Knight or The Joker in viral infections?, Immunol Rev, vol.255, issue.1, pp.210-221, 2013.

S. Cao, « Differential Regulation of IL-12 and IL-10 Gene Expression in Macrophages by the Basic Leucine Zipper Transcription Factor c-Maf Fibrosarcoma, The Journal of Immunology, vol.169, issue.10, pp.5715-5725, 2002.

I. Poschke, Y. Mao, L. Adamson, F. Salazar-onfray, G. Masucci et al., « Myeloid-derived suppressor cells impair the quality of dendritic cell vaccines, Cancer Immunology, Immunotherapy, vol.61, issue.6, pp.827-838

K. Movahedi, « Identification of discrete tumor-induced myeloid-derived suppressor cell subpopulations with distinct T cell-suppressive activity, Blood, vol.111, issue.8, pp.4233-4244, 2008.

A. Qin, « Expansion of Monocytic Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells Dampens T Cell Function in HIV-1-Seropositive Individuals », Journal of Virology, vol.87, issue.3, pp.1477-1490, 2013.

Y. Sui, « Paradoxical myeloid-derived suppressor cell reduction in the bone marrow of SIV chronically infected macaques, PLOS Pathogens, vol.13, issue.5, p.1006395, 2017.

S. E. Dross, « Kinetics of Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cell Frequency and Function during Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Infection, Combination Antiretroviral Therapy, and Treatment Interruption, The Journal of Immunology, vol.198, issue.2, pp.757-766, 2017.

E. T. Mee, « Mhc haplotype H6 is associated with sustained control of SIVmac251 infection in Mauritian cynomolgus macaques, Immunogenetics, vol.61, issue.5, pp.327-339, 2009.

T. Hatziioannou and D. T. Evans, « Animal models for HIV/AIDS research », Nature Reviews Microbiology, vol.10, pp.852-867

Y. Kim, J. L. Anderson, and S. R. Lewin, « Getting the "Kill" into "Shock and Kill": Strategies to Eliminate Latent HIV, Cell Host & Microbe, vol.23, issue.1, pp.14-26, 2018.

K. Bashiri, N. Rezaei, M. Nasi, and A. Cossarizza, « The role of latency reversal agents in the cure of HIV: A review of current data, Immunology Letters, vol.196, pp.135-139, 2018.

S. A. Williams, Prostratin Antagonizes HIV Latency by Activating NF-?B, vol.279, pp.42008-42017, 2004.

S. Reuse, « Synergistic Activation of HIV-1 Expression by Deacetylase Inhibitors and Prostratin: Implications for Treatment of Latent Infection, PLoS One, vol.4, 2009.

P. Tebas, Gene Editing of CCR5 in Autologous CD4 T Cells of Persons Infected with HIV, vol.370, pp.901-910, 2014.

R. Benjamin, B. K. Berges, A. Solis-leal, O. Igbinedion, C. L. Strong et al., TALEN gene editing takes aim on HIV, vol.135, pp.1059-1070, 2016.

R. J. Park, « A genome-wide CRISPR screen identifies a restricted set of HIV host dependency factors, Nat Genet, vol.49, issue.2, pp.193-203, 2017.

A. Zhen, « Long-term persistence and function of hematopoietic stem cell-derived chimeric antigen receptor T cells in a nonhuman primate model of HIV/AIDS, PLOS Pathogens, vol.13, p.1006753, 2017.

P. J. Skinner, « Targeting reservoirs of HIV replication in lymphoid follicles with cellular therapies to cure HIV, ADVANCES IN CELL AND GENE THERAPY, vol.2, issue.1, p.27, 2019.

C. K. Hua and M. E. Ackerman, « Engineering broadly neutralizing antibodies for HIV prevention and therapy, Adv Drug Deliv Rev, vol.103, pp.157-173, 2016.

A. Halper-stromberg and M. C. Nussenzweig, « Towards HIV-1 remission: potential roles for broadly neutralizing antibodies, vol.126, pp.415-423

M. Pino, M. Paiardini, and V. C. Marconi, Progress in achieving long-term HIV remission, p.1, 2018.

M. C. Pitman, J. S. Lau, J. H. Mcmahon, and S. R. Lewin, Barriers and strategies to achieve a cure for HIV, vol.5, pp.317-328, 2018.

F. Porichis and D. E. Kaufmann, Role of PD-1 in HIV Pathogenesis and as Target for Therapy, vol.9, pp.81-90, 2012.

A. Guihot, « Drastic decrease of the HIV reservoir in a patient treated with nivolumab for lung cancer, Annals of Oncology, vol.29, issue.2, pp.517-518, 2018.

F. Wightman, « Effect of ipilimumab on the HIV reservoir in an HIV-infected individual with metastatic melanoma, AIDS, vol.29, issue.4, pp.504-506, 2015.

C. Cicala, J. Arthos, and A. S. Fauci, « Role of T-cell trafficking in the pathogenesis of HIV disease, Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS, vol.14, issue.2, pp.115-120, 2019.

A. Sivro, « Integrin ?4?7 expression on peripheral blood CD4+ T cells predicts HIV acquisition and disease progression outcomes, Science Translational Medicine, vol.10, 2018.

A. A. Ansari, « Blocking of ?4?7 Gut-Homing Integrin during Acute Infection Leads to Decreased Plasma and Gastrointestinal Tissue Viral Loads in Simian Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Rhesus Macaques, J Immunol, vol.186, issue.2, pp.1044-1059, 2011.

J. Arthos, The Role of Integrin ?4?7 in HIV Pathogenesis and Treatment, vol.15, pp.127-135, 2018.

S. N. Byrareddy, Sustained virologic control in SIV+ macaques after antiretroviral and ?4?7 antibody therapy, vol.354, pp.197-202, 2016.

M. Uzzan, « Anti-?4?7 therapy targets lymphoid aggregates in the gastrointestinal tract of HIV-1-infected individuals, Sci Transl Med, vol.10, p.461, 2018.

D. Planas, J. Routy, and P. Ancuta, « New Th17-specific therapeutic strategies for HIV remission, Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS, vol.14, issue.2, pp.85-92, 2019.

A. Schuetz, « Initiation of ART during Early Acute HIV Infection Preserves Mucosal Th17 Function and Reverses HIV-Related Immune Activation, PLoS Pathog, vol.10, 2014.

D. Planas, « HIV-1 selectively targets gut-homing CCR6 + CD4 + T cells via mTOR-dependent mechanisms, JCI Insight, vol.2, p.15, 2017.

L. Kacani, « Detachment of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 from Germinal Centers by Blocking Complement Receptor Type 2, J Virol, vol.74, pp.7997-8002, 2000.

H. Dutartre, Les cellules dendritiques folliculaires des ganglions stockent du VIH-1 infectieux malgré les traitements antirétroviraux », médecine/sciences, vol.32, pp.803-805, 2016.

, qui permet l'étude de phases très précoces de l'infection et après mise sous traitement antirétroviral, ainsi que l'analyse de tissus non accessibles chez l'homme

, Mon travail dans ce projet a été d'analyser une population cellulaire encore mal caractérisée dans l'infection par le SIV chez le macaque, les cellules myéloïdes suppressives (MDSC)

, auto-immune, et lors de l'infection au VIH. Chez les personnes infectées par le VIH, il a été décrit qu'une augmentation des MDSC était associée à la progression de la maladie

. Dans, les résultats préliminaires de l'analyse de la dynamique des MDSC suite à l'infection par le SIV chez le macaque montrent une augmentation dans la moelle osseuse et le sang des MDSC d'origine myéloïde 4 semaines après l'infection. De plus, l'absence de traitement antirétroviral montre un épuisement des polynucléaires

, MDSC dans la moelle osseuse. La poursuite de cette étude pourrait contribuer à mieux comprendre les mécanismes immunologiques au cours de l'infection VIH