. History and . .. Portugal,

. Regions-selected-for and . .. Study,

. .. Research-report--alentejo,

. .. Conservation-approaches--alentejo, Location of Goa in India, vol.11

, According to their regions, sub-districts are referred to as 'mandals', 'tehsils', 'tahsils', 'taluks', 'talukas', 'circles', 'blocks', and 'sub-divisions'. These further constitute cities, towns, clusters of villages or villages. [69] Towns and villages are further divided into wards, India is the world's largest democracy. For administrative purposes, it is divided into 29 states and 7 Union Territories for purpose of administration, 2018.

, Goa has a total land area of 3,702km 2 . It shares its borders with the state of Maharashtra along the north and Karnataka along the south, The coastal stretch on which Goa is situated is called the Konkan Coast. Along with its islands

I. Khullar, A Comprehensive Geography, p.67

. Chandramouli, Census of India 2011 Administrative Atlas of India, p.p.iii

. Mascarenhas, Natural Resources of Goa: A Geological Perspective, p.74, 2019.

. Borges, Goa and Portugal: History and Development, p.138

G. Khedekar and . Land, Life and Legacy, p.68

. Borges, Goa and Portugal: History and Development, pp.139-140

M. Pandit, . Houses, and . Goa, , p.21

. Rangel-ribeiro, Goa Aparanta -Land Beyond the End, p.200 89 Ibid, p.104

G. Khedekar and . Land, Life and Legacy, p.91

. Gama, Migration from Goa: Factors, Household, Characteristics and Consumption Expenditure Inequalities, p.112 94 www.nri.goa.gov.in 95 www.census2011.co.in 96 Rangel-Ribeiro, Goa Aparanta -Land Beyond the End, p.73

G. Khedekar and . Land, Life and Legacy, p.10

. Gune, Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, p.221

. Sardesai, Goa mining ban: The truth that lies beneath, The Economic Times (India), 2018.

. Gama, Migration from Goa: Factors, Household, Characteristics and Consumption Expenditure Inequalities, p.180

I. Tumbe and . Moving, A History of Migration

. Tumbe, Heavy rains cause flooding in Goa, several evacuated, 107 www.mospi.gov.in 140 Ibid., p.7 141 Ibid, vol.14, pp.6-146, 2017.

. Gama, Migration from Goa: Factors, Household, Characteristics and Consumption Expenditure Inequalities, p.13

G. Issar and . Dourada, The Indo-Portuguese Bouquet, p.159

L. Silveira and . Heritage, Shared Space: The Courtyard House of Goa, p.104 219 Ibid, vol.220, p.105

. Rangel-ribeiro, Goa Aparanta -Land Beyond the End, p.95 222 Pandit and Mascarenhas, Houses of Goa, p.34

L. Silveira and . Heritage, Shared Space: The Courtyard House of Goa, pp.106-107

. Rangel-ribeiro, Goa Aparanta -Land Beyond the End, p.95

L. Silveira and . Heritage, Shared Space: The Courtyard House of Goa, p.109

G. Khedekar and . Land, Life and Legacy, p.242

. Ibid,

M. Pandit, . Houses, and . Goa, , p.34

. Ibid, , p.14

. Rangel-ribeiro, Goa Aparanta -Land Beyond the End, p.95

G. Issar and . Dourada, The Indo-Portuguese Bouquet, p.159

M. Pandit, . Houses, and . Goa, , p.34

. Rangel-ribeiro, Goa Aparanta -Land Beyond the End, p.100

H. Pandit and . Hands, Master Builders of Goa, p.97

. Rangel-ribeiro, Goa Aparanta -Land Beyond the End, p.103

, Rammed-earth construction was the most commonly used technique in Central and Southern Alentejo, until the 1950s. Even in areas of Alentejo where there were more stones, especially granite or schist, rammed-earth constructions were dominant. In some houses, both stone and rammed-earth was found: rammed-earth walls with lime-and-stone-mortar, or rammed-earth in some parts and stone in others. In areas with lots of clay, adobe-bricks were used to build walls, A schist quarry. Near Mourão, vol.163, 2018.

, Taipa no Alentejo. Rammed Earth in Alentejo, Mariana's study, p.40, 2000.

, The buildings that were revisited in 2018 were located in six municipalities, across three districts of Alentejo i.e. Évora, Beja and Setúbal. Image 165: Location of Alentejo in Portugal, Setúbal district in Alentejo (and Lisbon), vol.166

. Buildings-re, 2018: ? The municipality of Reguengos de Monsaraz

?. Redondo,

?. Mourão,

?. Moura, Beja: Survey nos. 9, p.10

?. Serpa, , vol.27, p.12

, ? Buildings photo documented in 2018: ? Reguengos de Monsaraz

?. Redondo, Évora: Survey no, vol.13

?. Moura,

?. Serpa, Beja: Survey no, vol.26

?. Alcácer and . Sal,

, Distinct characteristic: Schist between rammed-earth 'lifts' on exterior walls. Buttresses: In schist. Distinct characteristics: Schist between rammed-earth 'lifts' on exterior walls. Use of stone in rammed-earth construction

, Schist and granite masonry. Schist between 'lifts

, CONSTRUCTION DETAILS -ALENTEJO As in the case of Goa, the case-studies conducted in Alentejo are analysed based on the following aspects. ? Soils, construction techniques and building typology. ? Construction details. ? Mortars, plasters, pigments and/or paints

, SOILS, CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES AND BUILDING TYPOLOGY

?. Vx-i.e, Red or yellow Mediterranean soils

. Pmg, Grey Mediterranean soils, with quatzitic diorites

. ?-pac+vcm-i.e, Grey Mediterranean soils, marly limestone or marls + red or yellow Mediterranean soils, marly limestone or marls ('Region B

?. Sr-i.e, Red or yellow Mediterranean soils, clayey with deposits

. ?-px-i.e, Grey Mediterranean soils, with schist or greywackes ('Region C' -Survey nos

. Ex, Lithosoils, with schist or greywackes) ('Region C' -Survey nos. 8[40] (second rammed-earth layer))

, Vx i.e. Red or yellow Mediterranean soils, vol.181

, Pmg i.e. Grey Mediterranean soils, with quatzitic diorites, vol.182

, Image 184: Sr i.e. Red or yellow Mediterranean soils, clayey with deposits, Pac+Vcm i.e. Grey Mediterranean soils, marly limestone or marls + Red or yellow Mediterranean soils, vol.183

, Survey no. 8[40] -second rammed-earth layer). [Source: Correia, Le pise d'Alentejo, Portugal, 2000] Two earth construction techniques were identified. ? Rammed-earth (All 12 case-studies: 'Region A, Ex i.e. Githosoils, with schist or greywackes), vol.186

C. 'region, A. Da, and L. , lift' only)) had Px type soil. It comprised soil particles that were fine and had sharp corners. The walls had large greenish schist stones between the rammed-earth 'lifts' (Survey nos. 6[14] -only between first and second rammed-earth 'lifts

, comprised Ex type soil. It contains fine grain rock fragments and has a weak clay concentration. Though the soil includes a lot of greywackes, the schist present in it is also visible clearly. The reddish colour of the earth maybe because of the presence of fine and clayey, greyish and reddish schist

, Survey no. 8[40] -gables). In 'Region C', the presence of adobe-bricks is evidence that this material was used for horizontal reinforcements, as a substitute for schist and fired-brick. Adobe-bricks were often used in the region in exterior and interior walls, or as gable filling as clayey soil, Adobe-bricks were observed in 'Region A', Telheiro

, The dimensions of the rammed-earth blocks varied. The length ranged from a minimum of 1.50m

, ? 30cm (length) x 17cm (width) x 8cm (height)

, ? 33cm (length) x 16cm (width) x 10cm (height)

, Though in most cases the external wall thickness of the rammed-earth walls was 50cm

, Eight (out of 12) buildings analysed for this study had a stone base-course, Wherever it was clearly visible, it was observed that base-course were in stone and/or fire-brick

, Stone and/or fired-brick base-courses helped in avoiding capillary rise, and preventing rainwater and humidity from entering earthen walls, one building it was possible to confirm the existence of a foundation

, 18]) were either built with good quality earth or the 'lifts' were well-compacted. In some cases, it was observed that the rammed-earth 'lifts' overlapped each other in the corners, thereby strengthening the corners, The corners were built in rammed-earth

, There are some structures observed in 'Region D', Safara, which have an L-shaped element at the corners, inside the rammed-earth walls. This provided additional reinforcement, especially that Safara is close to a seismic zone of maximum intensity VII

, L-shaped element at the corners, inside the rammed-earth walls, Image, vol.188, 2000.

, In order to prevent the damage of walls owing to roof weight, tie-rods fitted with iron-rods inside it were used to stabilise walls. Buttresses also help in securing wall stability. Out of the 12 analysed buildings, six had tie-rods

, In some walls, the rammed-earth blocks have slanting joints. This allows one block to rest on the one that follows along the same 'lift' allowing for better joinery

, Walls built with soils comprising fine soil particles usually had the holes left by the rammed-earth form-work covered with mortars

, Region E', Vales Mortos is characterised by the use of fired-bricks in rammed-earth walls, especially along the frames of doors and windows. Fired-bricks are also seen along corners, between rammed-earth 'lifts

, 40]), or if the 'lifts' were built during different time periods, an attempt was made to separate the 'lifts' by using added materials such as stones, mortar, or mortar + fired-brick + mortar. This helped in avoiding problems likely to arise, When there were rammed-earth 'lifts' built with different soil types

, There was one case with schist (Survey no. 8[40]). This simple overhang was enough to protect the top of the walls from moderate rains. The presence of schist on the top of the walls could have had many purposes: to level the wall before placing the roof on it, to provide structural support to the triangular roof truss, to act as a barrier and avoid contact between the rammed-earth and the wood, etc. Image 189: Fired-brick overhangs, Five buildings displayed overhangs. In most cases, the material used was thin fired-brick ('tijolo cozido' in Portuguese, 2000.

, Sometimes, the spaces left between the rammed-earth blocks created openings which allowed light to enter the inside of the building

, PIGMENTS AND/OR PAINTS Earth or lime mortars were used in rammed-earth walls. ? Along horizontal joints i.e. between the rammed-earth 'lifts', which in some cases also contained fire-brick

, ? Along vertical joints

, ? Between the rammed-earth wall and wooden rafters

, ? Between the top of the rammed-earth wall and the overhang

, ? Mortars were also used to fill holes left by the rammed-earth form-work

, In most of the analysed buildings in Alentejo, only the facade walls had plasters, pigments and/or paints

, Survey no. 12[27], which is a new construction had all its walls plastered. Secondary buildings such as annexes used for agricultural reasons, or buildings for housing animals, often received an inferior quality plaster treatment

, It was also common to find earthen plasters and earth-wash

, Survey no. 3[9] had blue daubs on its white, interior walls, Blue highlights along door and window frames, vol.191, p.12, 2000.

, ]). However, few said that men also participated (Survey no. 2[38], Mason António Martins Inácio ('Region E'). Today, workers are sometimes hired for the same, Alentejo, walls were whitewashed periodically, usually by the women in the family

A. Tania-teixeira-;-architect, ). Montemor-o-novo, and J. Baptista, Two main types of lime were found in the region. ? White-lime ('cal branca' in Portuguese) ? Black-lime (referred to as 'cal preta', 'cal parda', 'cal de obra' or 'cal morena' depending on the master-builder

, Traditionally, lime was made from limestone (this lime is called 'cal' in Portuguese), and walls were whitewashed every 1-2 years. This created many paint layers, and thickened the walls over the years. Today, people prefer paints

. Traditionally, Image 195: Today, many white wash their walls with paints ('tinta' in Portuguese), Image, vol.193, 2018.

, Plasters, renders, pigments and/or paints reflect the sun's rays, as well as protect walls

T. Correia and . No-alentejo, Rammed Earth in Alentejo, pp.154-274

. Conservation-approaches--alentejo,

. Damages, . Incurred, and . Faced,

, There is vegetation on, in and around the building

, Roof or part of the roof was once lost in a fire

, A storm once brought down the chimney and created an opening in the roof ('Region D' -Survey no

, Winds tend to destabilise the roof, especially that the roof spans-out and is big in size ('Region D' -Survey no

, During the monsoons, old roof-tiles become so fragile that even a cat walking on damp tiles could cause cracking of roof-tiles

, Rotting of roof framework

, The building was lost in a fire

, Region E'), the owner said that the structure did not have a roof for many years, the walls were exposed to rainwater and parts of the walls have fallen

, Cracks were observed on most of the visited buildings

, the walls were exposed and the cracks led the building to fall apart

, Sometimes, cows like the salty taste of lime and hence they scratch and lick walls plastered with lime. If there is high salt content in the mud used in earthen buildings, they even lick walls with no plasters. Degradation of wall bases is often seen in cowsheds built with earth

, Bee holes ('Region B' -Survey no

, Degraded and damaged fired-bricks

, Degraded mortars ('Region E' -Survey no

, Warping and falling plasters ('Region B' -Survey nos

R. Pnrmcb and . Son-bâti-en-terre, , p.10

, ? Yellowish soil; includes clay, sand, and rubble. ('Region A, vol.10

?. Red, lateritic soil with lots of rubble. ('Region A' -Survey nos. 2, 6, 11; 'Region B', Sanguem (Neturlim) -Survey no. 15; 'Region C

, ? Yellow-brown-red soil, more clayey than sandy. ('Region B, vol.13

, The soils found in the earth buildings in Portugal were: ? Vx i.e. Red or yellow Mediterranean soils, with schist. ('Region A

. Pmg, Grey Mediterranean soils, with quartzitic diorites

. ?-pac+vcm-i.e, Grey Mediterranean soils, marly limestone or marls + red or yellow Mediterranean soils, marly limestone or marls. ('Region B

?. Sr-i.e, Red or yellow Mediterranean soils, clayey with deposits

. ?-px-i.e, Grey Mediterranean soils, with schist or greywackes. ('Region C', Mourão -Survey nos

. Ex, Lithosoils, with schist or greywackes). ('Region C' -Survey nos. 8[40] (second rammed-earth layer))

?. Six, 13 cob buildings) surveyed in Goa were more than 100 years old ('Region A' -Survey nos. 2, 4, 5, 7, 8; 'Region B', Neturlim -Survey no. 15). Others were built about 50-80 years ago ('Region A' Survey nos, vol.6, p.10, 1965.

?. Six, out of 12 rammed-earth buildings) surveyed in Alentejo were over 100 years old, pp.70-100

L. Silveira and . Heritage, Shared Space: The Courtyard House of Goa, p.104

. Ibid, , p.104

. Correia, Rammed Earth in Alentejo, p.21

H. Pandit and . Hands, Master Builders of Goa, p.97

, 310 Ibid, 312 Ibid., p.94 313 Ibid., p.105 314 Ibid, vol.94, p.88

. Ibid,

. Ibid,

. Correia, Rammed Earth in Alentejo, p.11, 1967.

, ), and rammed-earth buildings were constructed more recently, and are less than 30 years old ('Region B', Salgini -Survey nos, The adobe-brick gable, vol.12, p.13, 1988.

, In Goa, the rammed-earth technique is much more recent as compared to the other wall construction techniques. As surveyed, most houses built in rammed-earth were about 75-85 years old, while very few were about 100 years of age, p.41, 2006.

, Cob construction is a wall construction technique which is the most popular and has been in almost all parts of Goa, Earth in Architecture, p.47, 1927.

, Region C' -Survey nos. 8[40] (+/-1950), include adobe-bricks gables)

J. Tools, Photos of traditional and recent rammed-earth form-works, and tools were gathered during the research. The form-works in both, Goa and Portugal continue to evolved with time, p.23, 1966.

, Parts of a recent rammed-earth form-work used in Goa (4 images), Source: Lobo, Earth in Architecture, p.43

. Mason-sailor, Joaquim showing his 100 years old plum tool used in rammed-earth constructions

, Recent rammed-earth form-works used in Goa, images) [Source: BION. Building Impact Zero Network. Location: Galeria Municipal, 2018.

, Some details on the rammed-earth form-works used in Goa: ? Initially, rammed-earth form-works in Goa was made with wood from the mango tree

, ? In early rammed-earth form-works in Goa, ropes were used to secure the ribs. ? Several wooden planks form a single shutter (the wooden planks are called 'fadim

?. Bat, Konkani) is used to compact rammed-earth walls during construction. Modern rammed-earth form-work in Portugal, Lda. Construções Ecológicas, 2018.

, Details of rammed-earth form-works used in Portugal: ? Form-works were made from pine wood

, ? In early rammed-earth form-works in Portugal, ropes fasten the ribs ('costeiros' in Portuguese)

, ? Two wooden planks form each shutter (shutters are called 'taipas' or 'taipal' in Portuguese)

. Lobo, Earth in Architecture, p.42

. Pereira and . Savoir-faire, Ensignement et Construction en Pisé Dans Le Bas Alentejo, p.38

H. Pandit and . Hands, Master Builders of Goa, p.88

, 11 Ibid., p.93 12 Ibid., p.93 13 Ibid., p.93 14 Ibid., p.94 15 Ibid, p.94

. Ibid, , p.105

. Ibid, , p.105

. Ibid, , p.106

S. Colva and S. Goa, Corbelling made with 'Country-tiles'. Image 58 and Image 59 : The 'padvi' or 'pakadi' i.e. the lean-to with masonry seats, along the facades of rural Goan houses eventually evolved into a veranda with decorative railings and colonnades under the Portuguese influence, and took the form of a 'balkâmv' or 'balcão'. Image 60 : The 'balkâmv' or 'balcão' of the Indo-Portuguese house, 23 Ibid., p.106 24 Ibid., p.107 Image 2 : Les maisons au Portugal. Image 3 and Image 4 : Les maisons à Goa, vol.5, p.106, 2012.

, Holes along the horizontal 'lift' joints, which perhaps indicates the use of form-work in cob construction, Image, vol.68, issue.9

, Rammed-earth 'lifts' could not be determined as the walls displayed an uniform texture. The walls Image 76 : Corners; lower walls in laterite masonry, upper walls in earth. Image 77 and Image 78 : Mason Babuso's adobe-brick mould, Corners; earth with laterite-stones at intervals, vol.73, pp.Adobe-bricks

, Lintels of doors and windows were mostly slanted, and opened up to the interior of the house (Survey no. 3a). Image 93 : In a few cases, the lintels were simply placed horizontally, Image, vol.92, issue.12

, The wooden shutters constitute a protruded extension in the inner corners, which served as hinges. These elongated corners were loosely fitted into holes made in the lintel. This provision facilitated the opening and closing the shutters, Image, vol.94, issue.7

, Image 98 : Vents along wall tops (Survey no. 3a), Evidence of holes in the lintels suggests that that the old-styled hinged windows once existed, vol.97

, Provisions for niches and shelves in walls were made at the time of construction, Image, vol.101, issue.15

, Image 105 : Loft for storing agricultural materials such as ladders -not for grains, Laterite masonry niches in earthen walls, vol.102

, On some wall tops, laterite-stones were placed at random intervals. Image 114 : Sometimes, the wooden plate directly rested on the top of the wall, and held the framework, The upper part of the roof thrusts upwards, and is separate from the lower part, vol.107

, Image 134 : Mortars were present in those parts of the walls that had laterite-stone masonry Image 135 : Earthen mortars with lime re-pointing (Survey no. 3a), Small, wooden batons were fixed on roof corners (Survey nos. 11, 13), vol.129, 2018.

, An owner demonstrating how to manually break earthen-nests built by insects on interior walls, Image, vol.140

, Image 153 : Painting base-courses and the frames of openings in traditional colours continues even today, House renovated on before wedding celebrations. Image 143 : Map of Portugal and location of Alentejo, vol.141, 2018.

, Rammed-earth 'lifts' separated by earth and lime mortar (Survey no. 11[25]). Image 181 : Vx i.e. Red or yellow Mediterranean soils, Two rammed-earth layers within each block, separated by a layer of mortar + fired-brick + mortar, vol.172, 2018.

, Image 186 : Ex i.e. Githosoils, with schist or greywackes) (Survey no. 8[40] -second rammed-earth layer), Pac+Vcm i.e. Grey Mediterranean soils, marly limestone or marls + Red or yellow Mediterranean soils, vol.183, 2018.

?. Borges, C. J. , H. Feldmann, . Goa, P. Caetano et al., Vernacular Heritage and Earthen Architecture: Contributions For Sustainable Development, Fernandes, Pantaleão. Traditional Occupations of Goa. Benaulim: The Word Publications, 2015. ? Fjeld, Ivar. The Jewish Martyrs of Old Goa, vol.192, 1988.

P. Gomes, . Dr, J. F. Olivinho, . Concise-history-of-goa, D. V. Panaji-;-?-gune et al., Natural Resources of Goa: A Geological Perspective. Goa: Geological Society of Goa, 2009. ? Nadri, Ghulam A. The Political Economy of Indigo in India, 1580-1930: A Global Perspective, Pandit, Heta and Annabel Mascarenhas. Houses of Goa. Porvorim: Architecture Autonomous, 1999. ? Pandit, Heta and Farah Vakil. Hidden Hands: Master Builders of Goa. Porvorim: Heritage Network, 1966.

. Handbooks and D. C. Chandramouli, Indian Administrative Services, Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, Census of India 2011 Administrative Atlas of India, New Delhi: S. Narayan & Sons. ? Chinmay Tumbe. Remittances in India: Facts & Issues. Bangalore: Indian Institute of Management, 2000.

?. Fernandes and N. , The Rational of Primitive Shelter Case: Goa. Bachelor of Architecture dissertation, Goa College of Architecture, ICAR-NBSS & LUP Technologies. LRI Technology -A Base for Sustainable Agriculture. e-Publication. ? Instituto Dom Luiz. Chapter 2. 20th Century Portuguese Climate and Climate Scenarios, 2012.

?. Parreira and D. , ? Kambli, Tushar. A Comparative Study of Settlement Pattern and House Form in the Neighbouring Villages of Chorla and Surla. Bachelor of Architecture dissertation, 2007.

?. Kanchi, ;. Lobo, G. R. Atanasio-;-?-mahajan, B. L. Bappa-das, K. Manjunath-viswanatha-reddy et al., Weather trends of Last Fourteen Years (2002 -2015) at ICAR -Central Coastal Agricultural Research Institute, Old Goa. Technical Bulletin No 61. Old Goa: ICAR-Central Coastal Agricultural Research Institute, 2016. ? Maria da Conceição Lopes Aleixo Fernandes. A Cultura Construtiva do Adobe Em Portugal, GOA from INDIAN Invasion & it's Continued Illegal Occupation against UN Resolution, 2002.

. ?-madhavi-sardesai-;-?-menezes, ;. Vivek, S. Shripad, L. Brockey, and . Matthew, Portuguese architecture' in Goa has little to do with the Portuguese and everything to do with Goa, Goa and Portugal: History and Development, vol.16, 2000.

H. Carter, . Adams-;-?-juang, M. Richard, N. Morrissette, ;. Abc-clio-;-?-mukerji et al., ? Goan Soccer League Toronto: www.goansoccer.com ? Government of Goa official portal: www.goa.gov.in ? Houses of Goa museum: www.archgoa.org ? India Brand Equity Foundation: www.ibef.org ? Maps on the web: www.mapsontheweb.zoom-maps.com ? Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India: www.censusindia.gov.in ? Portal for climate change in Portugal, vol.1, 1985.

, KUrQCLcBGAs/s1600/IMG-20190416-WA0029.jpg)