P. Lapaquette, P. Brest, and P. Hofman, Etiology of Crohn???s disease: many roads lead to autophagy, Journal of Molecular Medicine, vol.3, issue.9, pp.987-96, 2012.
DOI : 10.1007/s00109-012-0934-8

M. Satsangi, . Silverberg, and . Vermeire, The Montreal classification of inflammatory bowel disease: controversies, consensus, and implications, Gut, vol.55, issue.6, pp.749-753, 2006.
DOI : 10.1136/gut.2005.082909

R. Sartor, Mechanisms of Disease: pathogenesis of Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, Nature Clinical Practice Gastroenterology & Hepatology, vol.124, issue.7
DOI : 10.1038/ncpgasthep0528

Y. Zhang and Y. Li, Inflammatory bowel disease: Pathogenesis, World Journal of Gastroenterology, vol.20, issue.1, pp.91-100, 2014.
DOI : 10.3748/wjg.v20.i1.91

M. Bengtson, C. Solberg, and G. Aamodt, Clustering in time of familial IBD separates ulcerative colitis from Crohn??s disease, Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, vol.15, issue.12, pp.1867-74, 2009.
DOI : 10.1002/ibd.20978

A. Franke, D. Mcgovern, and J. Barrett, Genome-wide meta-analysis increases to 71 the number of confirmed Crohn's disease susceptibility loci, Nature Genetics, vol.114, issue.12, pp.1118-1125, 2010.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-2036.2001.00981.x

D. Gaya, R. Russell, and E. Nimmo, New genes in inflammatory bowel disease: lessons for complex diseases?, The Lancet, vol.367, issue.9518, pp.1271-84, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68345-1

H. Esmaily, A. Vaziri-bami, and A. Miroliaee, The correlation between NF-??B inhibition and disease activity by coadministration of silibinin and ursodeoxycholic acid in experimental colitis, Fundamental & Clinical Pharmacology, vol.7, issue.6, pp.723-756, 2011.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1472-8206.2010.00893.x

P. Ocwieja, T. Hrncir, T. Liu, and Y. , Nod2 is required for the regulation of commensal microbiota in the intestine, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.106, issue.37, pp.15813-15821, 2009.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.0907722106

R. Farmer and W. Michener, Association of Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Families, Front Gastrointest Res, vol.11, issue.10, pp.17-26, 1986.
DOI : 10.1159/000412698

). P. Henderson and . Satsangi, Genes in inflammatory bowel disease: lessons from complex diseases, Clinical Medicine, vol.11, issue.1, pp.8-10, 2011.
DOI : 10.7861/clinmedicine.11-1-8

M. Rivas, M. Beaudoin, and A. Gardet, Deep resequencing of GWAS loci identifies independent rare variants associated with inflammatory bowel disease, Nature Genetics, vol.52, issue.11, pp.1066-73, 2011.
DOI : 10.1159/000090694

L. Henckaerts, I. Cleynen, and M. Brinar, Genetic variation in the autophagy gene ULK1 and risk of Crohn??s disease, Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, vol.17, issue.6, pp.1392-1397, 2011.
DOI : 10.1002/ibd.21486

M. Parkes, J. Barrett, and N. Prescott, Sequence variants in the autophagy gene IRGM and multiple other replicating loci contribute to Crohn's disease susceptibility, Nature Genetics, vol.6, issue.7, pp.830-832, 2007.
DOI : 10.1038/ng1001-223

K. Cadwell, K. Patel, and N. Maloney, Virus-Plus-Susceptibility Gene Interaction Determines Crohn's Disease Gene Atg16L1 Phenotypes in Intestine, Cell, vol.141, issue.7, pp.1135-1180, 2010.
DOI : 10.1016/j.cell.2010.05.009

L. Wallace, B. Zheng, Y. Kanasawa, and D. Shih, Immunopathology of inflammatory bowel disease, World Journal of Gastroenterology, vol.20, issue.1, pp.6-21, 2014.
DOI : 10.3748/wjg.v20.i1.6

M. Abreu, M. Fukata, and M. Arditi, TLR Signaling in the Gut in Health and Disease, The Journal of Immunology, vol.174, issue.8, pp.4453-4460, 2005.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.174.8.4453

D. Bonen, Y. Ogura, and D. Nicolae, Crohn's disease-associated NOD2 variants share a signaling defect in response to lipopolysaccharide and peptidoglycan, Gastroenterology, vol.124, issue.1, pp.140-146, 2003.
DOI : 10.1053/gast.2003.50019

C. Abraham and J. Cho, Functional consequences of NOD2 (CARD15) mutations, Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, vol.12, issue.7, pp.641-650, 2006.
DOI : 10.1097/01.MIB.0000225332.83861.5f

R. Sartor and F. Hoentjen, Proinflammatory Cytokines and Signaling Pathways in Intestinal Innate Immune Cells, Mucosal Immunology, vol.2, pp.681-701, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/B978-012491543-5/50039-5

S. Jones, R. Banks, and A. Haidar, Adhesion molecules in inflammatory bowel disease., Gut, vol.36, issue.5
DOI : 10.1136/gut.36.5.724

K. Wallace, L. Zheng, and Y. Kanazawa, Immunopathology of inflammatory bowel disease, World Journal of Gastroenterology, vol.20, issue.1, pp.6-21, 2014.
DOI : 10.3748/wjg.v20.i1.6

K. Baklien and P. Brandtzaeg, Comparative mapping of the local distribution of immunoglobulin-containing cells in ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease, Clin Exp Immunol, vol.22, issue.24, pp.197-209, 1975.

R. Xavier and D. Podolsky, Unravelling the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease, Nature, vol.124, issue.7152
DOI : 10.1038/nature06005

P. Parronchi, P. Romagnani, and F. Annunziato, Type 1 T-helper cell predominance and interleukin-12 expression in the gut of patients with Crohn's disease, Am J Pathol, vol.150, pp.823-855, 1997.

D. Berrebi, M. Besnard, and G. Fromont-hankard, Interleukin-12 expression is focally enhanced in the gastric mucosa of pediatric patients with Crohn's disease, Am J Pathol, vol.152, pp.667-72, 1998.

R. Duerr, K. Taylor, and S. Brant, A Genome-Wide Association Study Identifies IL23R as an Inflammatory Bowel Disease Gene, Science, vol.314, issue.5804, pp.1461-1464, 2006.
DOI : 10.1126/science.1135245

S. Brand, Crohn's disease: Th1, Th17 or both? The change of a paradigm: new immunological and genetic insights implicate Th17 cells in the pathogenesis of Crohn's disease, Gut, vol.58, issue.8, pp.1152-67, 2009.
DOI : 10.1136/gut.2008.163667

Z. Zhang, M. Zheng, and J. Bindas, Critical role of IL-17 receptor signaling in acute TNBS-induced colitis, Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, vol.12, issue.5, pp.382-390, 2006.
DOI : 10.1097/01.MIB.0000218764.06959.91

F. Scaldaferri, M. Sans, and S. Vetrano, Crucial role of the protein C pathway in governing microvascular inflammation in inflammatory bowel disease, Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol.117, issue.7, pp.1951-60, 2007.
DOI : 10.1172/JCI31027DS1

S. Danese, C. De-la-motte, and A. Sturm, Platelets triggers a CD40-dependent inflammatory response in the microvascularture of inflammatory bowel disease patients

N. Pooley, L. Ghosh, and P. Sharon, Up-regulation of E-selectin and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 differs between Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, Digestive Diseases and Sciences, vol.100, issue.1, pp.219-244, 1995.
DOI : 10.1007/BF02063969

G. Schurmann, A. Bishop, and P. Facer, Increased expression of cell adhesion molecule P-selectin in active inflammatory bowel disease., Gut, vol.36, issue.3, pp.411-429, 1995.
DOI : 10.1136/gut.36.3.411

C. Berlin, R. F. Bargatze, and J. J. Campbell, ??4 integrins mediate lymphocyte attachment and rolling under physiologic flow, Cell, vol.80, issue.3, pp.413-435, 1995.
DOI : 10.1016/0092-8674(95)90491-3

M. Salmi and S. Jalkanen, Lymphocyte homing to the gut: attraction, adhesion, and commitment, Immunological Reviews, vol.105, issue.1, pp.100-103, 2005.
DOI : 10.1084/jem.194.1.45

M. Briskin, D. Winsor-hines, and A. Shyjan, Human mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule-1 is preferentially expressed in intestinal tract and associated lymphoid tissue, Am

H. Souza, C. Elia, J. Spencer, and T. Macdonald, Expression of lymphocyte-endothelial receptor-ligand pairs, alpha 4beta 7/MAdCAM-1 and OX40/OX40 ligand in the colon and jejunum of patients with inflammatory bowel disease, Gut, vol.45, issue.6, pp.856-863, 1999.
DOI : 10.1136/gut.45.6.856

P. Marteau, P. Lepage, and I. Mangin, Gut flora and inflammatory bowel disease, Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics, vol.22, issue.s4, pp.18-23, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/S1521-6918(03)00072-6

H. Sokol, P. Seksik, and L. Rigottier-gois, Specificities of the fecal microbiota in inflammatory bowel disease, Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, vol.12, issue.2, pp.106-111, 2006.
DOI : 10.1097/01.MIB.0000200323.38139.c6

E. Zoetendal, M. Rajilic-stojanovic, and W. De-vos, High-throughput diversity and functionality analysis of the gastrointestinal tract microbiota, Gut, vol.57, issue.11, pp.1605-1615, 2008.
DOI : 10.1136/gut.2007.133603

A. Darfeuille-michaud, J. Boudeau, and P. Bulois, High prevalence of adherent-invasive Escherichia coli associated with ileal mucosa in Crohn???s disease, Gastroenterology, vol.127, issue.2, pp.412-433, 2004.
DOI : 10.1053/j.gastro.2004.04.061

M. Martinez-medina, X. Aldeguer, and M. Lopez-siles, Molecular diversity of Escherichia coli in the human gut: new ecological evidence supporting the role of adherent-invasive E

N. Barnich, F. Carvalho, and A. Glasser, CEACAM6 acts as a receptor for adherent-invasive E. coli, supporting ileal mucosa colonization in Crohn disease, Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol.117, issue.6, pp.1566-74, 2007.
DOI : 10.1172/JCI30504

P. Seksik, L. Rigottier-gois, and G. Gramet, Alterations of the dominant faecal bacterial groups in patients with Crohn's disease of the colon, Gut, vol.52, issue.2, pp.237-242, 2003.
DOI : 10.1136/gut.52.2.237

A. Swidsinski, V. Loening-baucke, and A. Herber, Mucosal flora in Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis ? an overview, J Physiol Pharmacol, vol.60, issue.6, pp.61-71, 2009.

K. Gradel, H. Nielsen, and H. Schonheyder, Increased Short- and Long-Term Risk of Inflammatory Bowel Disease After Salmonella or Campylobacter Gastroenteritis, Gastroenterology, vol.137, issue.2
DOI : 10.1053/j.gastro.2009.04.001

Y. Zhang and Y. Li, Inflammatory bowel disease: Pathogenesis, World Journal of Gastroenterology, vol.20, issue.1, pp.90-99, 2014.
DOI : 10.3748/wjg.v20.i1.91

J. Cosnes, Tobacco and IBD: relevance in the understanding of disease mechanisms and clinical practice, Best Practice & Research Clinical Gastroenterology, vol.18, issue.3, pp.481-96, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/j.bpg.2003.12.003

J. Goodhand, F. Greig, and Y. Koodun, Do Antidepressants Influence the Disease Course in Inflammatory Bowel Disease? A Retrospective Case-Matched Observational Study, Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, vol.18, issue.7, pp.1232-1241, 2012.
DOI : 10.1002/ibd.21846

D. Singly, B. Camus, and M. , Hépato-gastro-entérologie. 1 ère édition. Paris : Maloine, 2010.

W. Best, J. Becktel, and J. Singleton, Development of a Crohn's disease activity index, Gastroenterology, vol.70, issue.54, pp.439-483, 1976.

R. Harvey and J. Bradshaw, A SIMPLE INDEX OF CROHN'S-DISEASE ACTIVITY, The Lancet, vol.315, issue.8167, p.154, 1980.
DOI : 10.1016/S0140-6736(80)92767-1

E. Stange, S. Travis, and S. Vermeire, European evidence based consensus on the diagnosis and management of Crohn's disease: definitions and diagnosis, Gut, vol.55, issue.suppl_1, pp.5-15, 2006.
DOI : 10.1136/gut.2005.081950a

T. Sipponen, E. Savilahti, and K. Kolho, Crohn??s disease activity assessed by fecal calprotectin and lactoferrin: Correlation with Crohn??s disease activity index and endoscopic findings, Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, vol.14, issue.1, pp.40-46, 2008.
DOI : 10.1002/ibd.20312

V. Benedini, N. Caporaso, and G. Corazza, Burden of Crohn's disease : economics and quality of life aspects in Italy, ClinicoEcon Outcomes Res, vol.4, pp.209-227, 2012.

N. Molodecky, I. Soon, and D. Rabi, Increasing Incidence and Prevalence of the Inflammatory Bowel Diseases With Time, Based on Systematic Review, Gastroenterology, vol.142, issue.1, pp.46-54, 2012.
DOI : 10.1053/j.gastro.2011.10.001

J. Blanchard, C. Bernstein, A. Wajda, and P. Rawsthorne, Small-area Variations and Sociodemographic Correlates for the Incidence of Crohn's Disease and Ulcerative Colitis, American Journal of Epidemiology, vol.154, issue.4
DOI : 10.1093/aje/154.4.328

E. V. Loftus-jr, P. Schoenfeld, and W. Sandborn, The epidemiology and natural history of Crohn's disease in population-based patient cohorts from North America: a systematic review, Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics, vol.133, issue.1, pp.51-60, 2002.
DOI : 10.1001/jama.272.3.234

C. Gismera and B. Aladren, Inflammatory bowel diseases : a disease(s) of modern times ? Is incidence still increasing ?, World J Gastroenterol, vol.14, issue.6336, pp.5491-5499, 2008.

). D. Kappelman, D. , R. Moore, K. , and K. A. Jeffery, Recent trends in the prevalence of Crohn's diease and ulcerative colitis in a commercially insured US population, Dig Dis Sci, issue.642, pp.58519-58544, 2013.

R. W. Leong, Y. Lau, J. , J. Sung, and J. , The Epidemiology and Phenotype of Crohn???s Disease in the Chinese Population, Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, vol.10, issue.5, pp.646-51, 2004.
DOI : 10.1097/00054725-200409000-00022

C. R. Victoria, S. L. Nunes, and H. R. , Incidence and prevalence rates of inflammatory bowel diseases, in midwestern of S??o Paulo State, Brazil, midwester of Sao Paulo State, pp.20-25, 2009.
DOI : 10.1590/S0004-28032009000100009

K. Lok, H. Hung, and C. Ng, The epidemiology and clinical characteristics of Crohn's disease in the Hong Kong Chinese population: experiences from a regional hospital

?. Hovde and B. Moum, Epidemiology and clinical course of Crohn's disease: Results from observational studies, World Journal of Gastroenterology, vol.18, issue.15, pp.1723-1754, 2012.
DOI : 10.3748/wjg.v18.i15.1723

V. Economou, E. Zambeli, and S. Michopoulos, Incidence and prevalence of Crohn's disease and its etiological influences, Annals of gastroenterology, vol.22, issue.693, pp.158-67, 2009.

R. Gearry, A. Richardson, and C. Frampton, High incidence of Crohn??s disease in Canterbury, New Zealand: Results of an epidemiologic study, Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, vol.12, issue.10, pp.936-979, 2006.
DOI : 10.1097/01.mib.0000231572.88806.b9

R. Baldassano and D. Piccoli, INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE IN PEDIATRIC AND ADOLESCENT PATIENTS, Disponible sur, pp.445-58, 1999.
DOI : 10.1016/S0889-8553(05)70064-9

J. Markowitz, Patterns of Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use in a Population of Pediatric Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease, Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, vol.10, issue.5, pp.599-60, 2004.
DOI : 10.1097/00054725-200409000-00015

U. Patient, K. Asakura, Y. Nishiwaki, and N. Inoue, Disponible sur : <http://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/crohns-disease-pro> (75) Prevalence of ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease in Japan, J Gastroenterol, vol.44, issue.747, pp.659-65, 2009.

T. Yao, T. Matsui, and . Hiwatashi, Crohn??s disease in Japan, Diseases of the Colon & Rectum, vol.43, issue.Sup 10, pp.85-93, 2000.
DOI : 10.1007/BF02237231

N. Morita, S. Toki, and . Hirohashi, Incidence and prevalence of inflammatory bowel disease in Japan: nationwide epidemiological survey during the year 1991, J Gastroenterol, vol.30, issue.8, pp.1-4, 1995.

H. Steed, S. Walsh, and N. Reynolds, Crohn's Disease Incidence in NHS Tayside, Scottish Medical Journal, vol.55, issue.3, pp.22-27, 2010.
DOI : 10.1258/rsmsmj.55.3.22

V. Chouraki, G. Savoye, and L. Dauchet, The changing pattern of Crohn???s disease incidence in northern France: a continuing increase in the 10- to 19-year-old age bracket (1988-2007), 79) National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE), pp.1133-1175, 2011.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-2036.2011.04628.x

C. Saro-gismera, L. Fernandez, M. , A. Fernandez, and G. , Incidence and prevalence of inflammatory bowel disease in Gijon, Asturias, Spain, Gastroenterol Hepatol, vol.23, issue.827, pp.322-329, 2000.

P. Lopez-serrano, J. Perez-calle, and E. Carrera-alonso, Epidemiologic study on the current incidence of inflammatory bowel disease in Madrid, Revista Espa??ola de Enfermedades Digestivas, vol.101, issue.11, pp.768-72, 2009.
DOI : 10.4321/S1130-01082009001100004

P. Lakatos and . Lakatos, Is the incidence and prevalence of inflammatory bowel diseases increasing in Eastern Europe?, Postgraduate Medical Journal, vol.82, issue.967, pp.332-339, 2006.
DOI : 10.1136/pgmj.2005.042416

J. Wilson, C. Hair, R. Knight, and . Etal, High incidence of inflammatory bowel disease in

. Australia, a prospective population base australian incidence study, Inflamm Bowel Dis, vol.16, pp.1550-1556, 2010.

U. Colitis, Disponible sur :<http://www.crohnsandcolitis.com.au/content/Final_IBD_report_9_June.pdf> (87). Pai CG, Khandige GK. Is Crohn 's disease rare in India, Indian J Gastroenterol, vol.19, issue.1, pp.17-20, 2000.

. Univadis and . Vidal-recos-online, Crohn (maladie de). [en ligne]. [consulté le 16, 2014.

V. Bianchi, E. Anbassi, and S. Médicaments, 1 ère édition. Bruxelles : Deboeck, 2012.

P. Desreumaux and S. Ghosh, Review article: mode of action and delivery of 5-aminosalicylic acid ??? new evidence, Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics, vol.95, issue.s1, pp.2-9, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/S1590-8658(03)00050-1

M. Campieri, A. Ferguson, and W. Doe, Oral budesonide is as effective as oral prednisolone in active Crohn's disease, Gut, vol.41, issue.2, pp.209-223, 1997.
DOI : 10.1136/gut.41.2.209

W. Faubion, E. Loftus, and W. Harmsen, The natural history of corticosteroid therapy for inflammatory bowel disease: A population-based study, Gastroenterology, vol.121, issue.2, pp.255-60, 2001.
DOI : 10.1053/gast.2001.26279

T. Creed and C. Probert, Review article: steroid resistance in inflammatory bowel disease - mechanisms and therapeutic strategies, Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, vol.124, issue.2, pp.111-133, 2007.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-2036.2006.03156.x

S. Hollenberg, C. Weinberger, and E. Ong, Primary structure and expression of a functional human glucocorticoid receptor cDNA, Nature, vol.318, issue.6047, pp.635-676, 1985.
DOI : 10.1038/318635a0

C. Rivers, A. Levy, J. Hancock, S. Lightman, and M. Norman, Insertion of an Amino Acid in the DNA-Binding Domain of the Glucocorticoid Receptor as a Result of Alternative Splicing, The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, vol.84, issue.11, pp.4283-4289, 1999.
DOI : 10.1210/jcem.84.11.6235

P. Barnes, Corticosteroid effects on cell signalling, European Respiratory Journal, vol.27, issue.2, pp.413-439, 2006.
DOI : 10.1183/09031936.06.00125404

C. Jonat, H. Rahmsdorf, and K. Park, Antitumor promotion and antiinflammation: Down-modulation of AP-1 (Fos/Jun) activity by glucocorticoid hormone, Cell, vol.62, issue.6, pp.1189-204, 1990.
DOI : 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90395-U

N. Auphan, J. Didonato, and R. C. , Immunosuppression by Glucocorticoids: Inhibition of NF-kappaB Activity Through Induction of IkappaB Sy nthesis, Science, vol.270, issue.5234, pp.286-90, 1995.
DOI : 10.1126/science.270.5234.286

S. Candy, J. Wright, and M. Gerber, A controlled double blind study of azathioprine in the management of Crohn's disease., Gut, vol.37, issue.5, pp.674-682, 1995.
DOI : 10.1136/gut.37.5.674

F. Aberra and G. Liechstenstein, Review article: monitoring of immunomodulators in inflammatory bowel disease, Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics, vol.46, issue.4, pp.307-326, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/0140-6736(90)91521-B

H. Marzo-ortega, D. Mcgonagle, O. Connor, and P. , Efficacy of etanercept for treatment of Crohn's related spondyloarthritis but not colitis, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, vol.62, issue.1, pp.74-80, 2003.
DOI : 10.1136/ard.62.1.74

A. Group, Maintenance infliximab for Crohn's disease: the ACCENT I randomised trial, Lancet, vol.59, pp.1541-1550, 2002.

J. Agnholt and K. Kaltoft, INFLIXIMAB DOWNREGULATES INTERFERON-?? PRODUCTION IN ACTIVATED GUT T-LYMPHOCYTES FROM PATIENTS WITH CROHN'S DISEASE, Cytokine, vol.15, issue.4, pp.212-234, 2001.
DOI : 10.1006/cyto.2001.0919

B. Sands, F. Anderson, and C. Bernstein, Infliximab Maintenance Therapy for Fistulizing Crohn's Disease, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.350, issue.9, pp.876-85, 2004.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJMoa030815

J. Colombel, W. Sandborn, and P. Rutgeerts, Adalimumab for Maintenance of Clinical Response and Remission in Patients With Crohn???s Disease: The CHARM Trial, Gastroenterology, vol.132, issue.1
DOI : 10.1053/j.gastro.2006.11.041

W. Hwang and J. Foote, Immunogenicity of engineered antibodies, Methods, vol.36, issue.1, pp.3-10, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.ymeth.2005.01.001

L. Aarden, S. Ruuls, and G. Wolbink, Immunogenicity of anti-tumor necrosis factor antibodies???toward improved methods of anti-antibody measurement, Current Opinion in Immunology, vol.20, issue.4, pp.431-436, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.coi.2008.06.011

W. Sandborn, S. Hanauer, and P. Rutgeerts, Adalimumab for maintenance treatment of Crohn's disease: results of the CLASSIC II trial, Gut, vol.56, issue.9, pp.1232-1241, 2007.
DOI : 10.1136/gut.2006.106781

S. Hanauer, W. Sandborn, and P. Rutgeerts, Human Anti???Tumor Necrosis Factor Monoclonal Antibody (Adalimumab) in Crohn???s Disease: the CLASSIC-I Trial, Gastroenterology, vol.130, issue.2, pp.323-356, 2006.
DOI : 10.1053/j.gastro.2005.11.030

Y. Yang, M. Lichtenstein, and G. Lichtenstein, Corticosteroids in Crohn's disease, The American Journal of Gastroenterology, vol.123, issue.1, pp.803-826, 2002.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1572-0241.2001.03612.x

G. Lichtenstein, Approach to corticosteroid-dependent and corticosteroid-refractory Crohn's disease, Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, vol.7, issue.S1, pp.23-32, 2001.
DOI : 10.1002/ibd.3780070506

B. Landi, T. Anh, and A. Cortot, Endoscopic monitoring of Crohn's disease treatment: A prospective, randomized clinical trial, Gastroenterology, vol.102, issue.5, pp.1647-53, 1992.
DOI : 10.1016/0016-5085(92)91725-J

H. Bantel, W. Domschke, and K. Schulze-osthoff, Molecular mechanisms of glucocorticoid resistance, Gastroenterology, vol.119, issue.4, pp.1178-1187, 2000.
DOI : 10.1053/gast.2000.19224

J. Matthews, K. Ito, P. Barnes, and A. , Defective glucocorticoid receptor nuclear translocation and altered histone acetylation patterns in glucocorticoid-resistant patients, Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, vol.113, issue.6
DOI : 10.1016/j.jaci.2004.03.018

D. Leung, Q. Hamid, and A. Vottero, Association of Glucocorticoid Insensitivity with Increased Expression of Glucocorticoid Receptor ??, Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol.88, issue.5, pp.1567-74, 1997.
DOI : 10.1016/0954-6111(94)90044-2

I. Adcock, S. Lane, and C. Brown, Differences in binding of glucocorticoid receptor to DNA in steroid-resistant asthma, J Immunol, vol.154, pp.3500-3505, 1995.

E. Goleva, K. Kisich, and D. Leung, A Role for STAT5 in the Pathogenesis of IL-2-Induced Glucocorticoid Resistance, The Journal of Immunology, vol.169, issue.10, pp.5934-5974, 2002.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.169.10.5934

H. Bantel, W. Domschke, K. Schulze-osthoff, B. Kaskas, and M. Gregor, Abnormal activation of transcription factor NF-?B involved in steroid resistance in chronic inflammatory bowel disease, Am J Gastroenterol, vol.95, pp.1845-1851, 2000.

G. Ho, E. Nimmo, and A. Tenesa, Allelic variations of the multidrug resistance gene determine susceptibility and disease behavior in ulcerative colitis, Gastroenterology, vol.128, issue.2, pp.288-96, 2005.
DOI : 10.1053/j.gastro.2004.11.019

R. Farrell, A. Murphy, and A. Long, High multidrug resistance (P-glycoprotein 170) expression in inflammatory bowel disease patients who fail medical therapy, Gastroenterology, vol.118, issue.2
DOI : 10.1016/S0016-5085(00)70210-1

J. Tung, E. Loftus, and D. Freese, A population-based study of the frequency of corticosteroid resistance and dependence in pediatric patients with Crohn??s disease and ulcerative colitis, Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, vol.12, issue.12, pp.1093-100, 2006.
DOI : 10.1097/01.mib.0000235835.32176.85

P. Munkholm, E. Langholz, and M. Davidsen, Frequency of glucocorticoid resistance and dependency in Crohn's disease., Gut, vol.35, issue.3, pp.360-362, 1995.
DOI : 10.1136/gut.35.3.360

R. Modigliani, J. Mary, and J. Simon, Clinical, biological, and endoscopic picture of attacks of Crohn's disease, Gastroenterology, vol.98, issue.4, pp.811-819, 1990.
DOI : 10.1016/0016-5085(90)90002-I

I. Bjarnason, A. Macpherson, and C. Mackintosh, Reduced bone density in patients with inflammatory bowel disease., Gut, vol.40, issue.2, pp.228-261, 1997.
DOI : 10.1136/gut.40.2.228

S. Ghosh, S. Cowen, W. Hannan, and A. Ferguson, Low bone mineral density in Crohn's disease, but not in ulcerative colitis, at diagnosis, Gastroenterology, vol.107, issue.4, pp.1031-1040, 1994.
DOI : 10.1016/0016-5085(94)90227-5

J. Compston, D. Judd, and E. Crawley, Osteoporosis in patients with inflammatory bowel disease., Gut, vol.28, issue.4, pp.410-415, 1987.
DOI : 10.1136/gut.28.4.410

J. Singleton, D. Law, M. Kelley, and . Jr, National Cooperative Crohn's Disease Study

E. Brown, D. Khan, and V. Nejtek, The psychiatric side effects of corticosteroids, Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology, vol.83, issue.6, pp.495-504, 1999.
DOI : 10.1016/S1081-1206(10)62858-X

S. Danese, G. Fiorino, and W. Reinisch, Review article: causative factors and the clinical management of patients with Crohn???s disease who lose response to anti-TNF-?? therapy, Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, vol.15, issue.1
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-2036.2011.04679.x

P. Rutgeerts, D. Haens, G. Targan, S. Vasiliauskas, E. Hanauer et al., Efficacy and safety of retreatment with anti???tumor necrosis factor antibody (infliximab) to maintain remission in Crohn's disease, Gastroenterology, vol.117, issue.4, pp.761-770, 1999.
DOI : 10.1016/S0016-5085(99)70332-X

M. Allez, K. Karmiris, and E. Louis, Report of the ECCO pathogenesis workshop on anti-TNF therapy failures in inflammatory bowel diseases: Definitions, frequency and pharmacological aspects, Journal of Crohn's and Colitis, vol.4, issue.4, pp.355-66, 2010.
DOI : 10.1016/j.crohns.2010.04.004

P. Faure and F. Carbonnel, Maladie de Crohn: que faire quand tout a ??chou???, U, pp.149-52, 2011.
DOI : 10.1007/978-2-8178-0237-4_16

S. Ben-horin and Y. Chowers, Review article: loss of response to anti-TNF treatments in Crohn???s disease, Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, vol.58, issue.9, pp.987-95, 2011.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-2036.2011.04612.x

S. Nikolaus, A. Raedler, and T. Kuhbacher, Mechanisms in failure of infliximab for Crohn's disease, The Lancet, vol.356, issue.9240, pp.1475-1484, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02871-3

S. Hanauer, C. Wagner, and M. Bala, Incidence and importance of antibody responses to infliximab after maintenance or episodic treatment in Crohn???s disease, Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology, vol.2, issue.7, pp.542-53, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/S1542-3565(04)00238-1

N. Van-de-casteele, A. Gils, and S. Singh, Antibody Response to Infliximab and its Impact on Pharmacokinetics can be Transient, The American Journal of Gastroenterology, vol.112, issue.6, pp.962-71, 2013.
DOI : 10.1038/ajg.2013.12

M. Allez, Comment prendre en charge un malade en perte de réponse aux anti-TNF?

M. Allez, S. Vermeire, and N. Mozziconacci, The efficacy and safety of a third anti-TNF monoclonal antibody in Crohn's disease after failure of two other anti-TNF antibodies

T. Lobaton, G. Vermeire, and V. Assche, Review article: anti-adhesion therapies for inflammatory bowel disease, Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, vol.359, issue.Suppl. 1, pp.579-94, 2014.
DOI : 10.1111/apt.12639

A. European-medicines, Refus de l'autorisation de mise sur le marché pour Xeljanz (tofacitinib) [En ligne]. [Consulté le 17 mai 2014] Disponible sur : <http://www.ema.europa, 2014.

. Novonordisk and . Pipeline, European Medicines Agency (EMA) Résumé des caractéristiques du produit :Stelara ® 45 mg solution injectable 23 mai 2014 (163) US National Institutes of Health [en ligne]. [Consulté le, Disponible sur <http, pp.58-64, 1999.

B. Sands, B. Winston, and B. Salzberg, Randomized, controlled trial of recombinant human interleukin-11 in patients with active Crohn's disease, Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics, vol.43, issue.3, pp.399-406, 2002.
DOI : 10.1074/jbc.271.20.11756

. Disponible-sur-<http, Disponible sur <http, light_release.pdf> (167) Laboratoire Takeda. R&D Pipeline. [en ligne168) Amgen. Amgen and AstraZeneca Announce Collaboration to Jointly Develop and Commercialize Clinical-Stage Inflammation Portfolio. [en ligne]. [Consulté le 15 mai 2014], 2014.

. Disponible-sur, US National Institutes of Health Disponible sur http://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01696396 (170) LARVOL DELTA. Efficacy and safety of NNC0142-0002, a novel human monoclonal antibody targeting NKG2D: A randomized, double-blind, single dose phase 2 trial in patients with Crohn's disease, ) Biocentury BCIQ . Anti-NKG2D (NN8555). [en ligne]. [consulté le, pp.47-7850, 2014.

. Disponible-sur, biocentury.com/products/anti-nkg2d (172) Adcomm Bulletin Thomson Reuters. Today's Headline : Takeda's Entyvio Endorsed for

U. Colitis and C. Disease, Disponible sur: http://uk.reuters.com/articleus-takeda-pharm-drug-europe- idUKKBN0E803120140528 (173) Gosh S, Panaccione R. Anti-adhesion molecule therapy for inflammatory bowel disease, Ther adv Gastroenterol, vol.28, issue.34, pp.239-58, 2010.

I. Craig, Modifying T-Cell trafficking to the intestinal as a potential management for inflammatory bowel disease, Expert Opin Investig Drugs, vol.21, issue.7, pp.975-84, 2012.

M. Srichai and R. Zent, Cell-Extracellular Matrix Interactions in Cancer

S. Papst, A. Noisier, and M. Brimble, Tyrosine modified analogues of the ??4??7 integrin inhibitor biotin-R8ERY prepared via Click Chemistry: Synthesis and biological evaluation, Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry, vol.20, issue.8, pp.2638-2682, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/j.bmc.2012.02.035

I. Lawrance, Modifying T-cell trafficking to the intestinal as a potential management for inflammatory bowel disease, Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs, vol.58, issue.7, pp.975-84, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/S0016-5085(09)60295-X

W. Pan, K. Köck, and W. Rees, antibody that specifically alters trafficking of gut-homing T cells, British Journal of Pharmacology, vol.60, issue.S1, pp.51-68, 2013.
DOI : 10.1111/bph.12134

J. Berger, S. Houff, and O. Major, Monoclonal antibodies and progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, mAbs, vol.21, issue.6, pp.583-592, 2009.
DOI : 10.1080/13550280152537102

URL : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2791316

S. Gosh, E. Goldin, and F. Gordon, Natalizumab for Active Crohn's Disease, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.348, issue.1, pp.24-32, 2003.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJMoa020732

T. Pharmaceuticals and U. S. Inc, Disponible surpdf (182) Food and Drug Admininstration. FDA approves Entyvio to treat ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease. [Consulté le 25 mai 2014] Disponible sur <http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm398065.htm> (183) Agence Européenne du medicament. Press release " European Medicines Agency recommends approval of a locally targeted treatment for ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease Disponible sur : < http Summary of opinion (initial authorisation) Entyvio Vedolizumab, WC500163492.pdf> (185) European Medicines Agency (EMA). Entyvio. Autorisation details. [en ligne].[consulté le 16 Disponible sur186) US National Institutes of Health [en ligne]. [Consulté le Disponible sur <http, 2013.